United Mexican States. United States of Mexico - history of the country Mexico what country

You love holiday at sea?

You love trips ?

Would you like to do this more often ?

Do you know that at the same timeCan you still earn money?

Your additional income 10,000 - 50,000 rubles per month working at the same time as a regional representative In your city , you can start working without experience...

...or just help your friends and acquaintances select profitable last minute deals online and save up for your vacation...

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Mexico

Description of the country

Mexico has a rich historical heritage. It invites tourists to immerse themselves in the times of the ancient civilizations of the Mayans and Aztecs, enjoy the beauty of colonial architecture and the majesty of modern buildings. The contrast can also be seen in the nature of the country. It has everything - volcanoes, deserts, sandy beaches and coral reefs. Who hasn’t dreamed of visiting a Mexican carnival full of passions and trying tequila? And all this in a year-round summer. Today Mexico is a unique and vibrant interweaving of past and present. This land amazingly combines dense impenetrable jungle, wide plains, fabulous mountains and volcanoes, fantastic landscapes and graceful pyramids. This country of proud and open people, bright colors and rich history will undoubtedly amaze and captivate you with its sincere hospitality.

Geography

MEXICO (Mexico, Mejico), United Mexican States (Estado Unido Mexicanos), a state in the south of North America. It also owns islands in the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California. Mexico is shaped like a loop, stretched from northwest to southeast, narrowing closer to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and expanding again in Yucatan. Area 1958.2 thousand km2. The capital of Mexico is Mexico City. Large cities: Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Ciudad Juarez, Leon, Tijuana.
Mexico is a mountainous country. Two mountain ranges in the north and south of the country frame a group of broad plateaus in central Mexico known as the Altiplano Central. In the south, the Sierra Madre del Sur mountains stretch across the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. From the isthmus, a narrow line of lowlands runs along the Pacific coast to Guatemala. Beyond these lowlands are the Chiapas highlands, which transition into hot tropical rainforests that also extend into Guatemala. The plains and lowlands of the Yucatan Peninsula are covered with tropical savannas.
The western mountain range, the Sierra Madre Occidental, and the eastern, the Sierra Madre Oriental, meet in the southeastern region of La Junta and form the Sierra Madre del San, a labyrinth of volcanoes that include Mexico's highest peaks (up to 5,700 meters). In the southeast of the country is the Yucatan Peninsula, which is flat with an average height of 20 to 30 meters. The main “water arteries” are the Rio Grande or Rio Bravo del Norte, Balsas Panuco, Grijalva, Usumacinta and Conilos rivers.
The largest lake in Mexico is Chapala.

Time

It is 9 hours behind Moscow. From the first Sunday in April to October - summer time. Pacific coast - at 11 o'clock.

Climate

Subtropical in the north, tropical in the south. In the area of ​​the Mexican Highlands it is usually much cooler (from +2 C in winter to +15 C in summer) than on the coast, where the air temperature does not drop below +20 C even in winter. In the northern part of the country and in mountainous areas, little snow falls in winter. In coastal resort areas (Acapulco, Cancun), temperatures range from +22 C in winter to +35 C in summer. Due to the features of the relief, altitudinal zonation is clearly expressed. Usually there are dry (November-April) and wet (June-September) seasons, which differ slightly in temperature, but due to the influence of tropical cyclones, they vary greatly in the amount of precipitation, and especially in air humidity. Total precipitation ranges from 100 to 3000 mm. in year. The Gulf Coast receives much more rain than the country's Pacific shores, so some resorts require some acclimatization due to the high humidity. Powerful tropical cyclones are frequent. Mexico is rich in volcanoes. And in this regard, there are many different balneological centers in the country.

Language

Official language: Spanish. Mayan, Nahuatl, etc. dialects are also common. Naturally, they all speak the languages ​​of their ancestors, but they also use Spanish. English is widely spoken.

Religion

Christianity is the dominant religion of Mexico (97% of the country's population consider themselves Catholics). 3% of Mexicans adhere to the most diverse forms of Protestantism. There are small but quite prosperous communities of Baha'is and Jews.

Population

The population of Mexico is 106,202,903 (2004), with an average population density of about 54 people per km2. More than half of the country's inhabitants (55%) are Spanish-Indian mestizos, Indians - 29%, Europeans - about 15%. Birth rate - 26.64 newborns per 1,000 people (1995). Mortality - 4.64 deaths per 1,000 people (infant mortality rate - 26 deaths per 1,000 births). Average life expectancy in Mexico: men - 70 years, women - 77 years (1995). The working-age population is 26,200,000 people, of which 32% are employed in the service sector, 26% in agriculture, and 11% in industry (1990).

Electricity

120 volts, 60 hertz (American standard - flat plug, adapter required).

Emergency numbers

Police, ambulance, fire brigade and other emergencies - 06.

Connection

International telephone calls can be made from hotels, specialized call centers and from the post office. Most street pay phones work with cards and a call from them is much cheaper than from a hotel, especially since in many hotels you have to pay even for the call that did not result in a connection with the subscriber. Telephone rates are quite high (an additional 49% tax applies). To call to Mexico you need to dial 8 - 10 - 52 -<код города> - <номер вызываемого абонента>.

Currency exchange

Banks are open from 9.00 to 17.00 on weekdays (some bank branches are open even until 24.00 or 01.00), and from 9.00 to 14.00 on Saturdays. Sunday is a day off. Some bank branches in resort areas are also open from 16.00 to 18.00, on Saturday - from 10.00 to 13.30 and from 16.00 to 18.00, and on Sunday - from 10.00 to 13.30. Currency exchange can be done in banks, large hotels, airports (usually the best rate) or specialized exchange offices "casas de cambio". Difficulties often arise with the exchange of tattered banknotes or banknotes of old series. Most hotels, restaurants, shops and travel agencies accept leading credit cards and traveler's checks (preferably in US dollars). A network of ATMs is widely developed in resort areas. US dollars are also accepted almost everywhere (the exchange rate is not the most favorable).

Visa

Consular fee
The consular fee for a tourist visa is $36, business and visitor visas are $134. The fee is paid at the consular department after receiving permission to enter, when submitting your passport for a visa. Payment is made in rubles.
Visa validity periods
The standard validity period for a tourist visa is 5 and 10 years. The length of stay in the country is determined by the Mexican Migration Service and can range from 14 to 90 days.
Visa processing times
The appointment date at the consulate is set on the second or third day from the date of sending the electronic visa request. Visa processing takes 2-3 days.

Customs regulations

The import and export of foreign currency is not limited (declaration is required), national currency - up to the equivalent of $10 thousand. Persons over 18 years of age are allowed duty-free import of up to 400 cigarettes or 50 cigars, or 250 g of tobacco; up to 3 liters of spirits or wine; a reasonable amount of perfume, 1 video camera, 1 photo camera and 12 films (video cassettes) for them, as well as gifts and other goods worth no more than $300. Additional goods valued at $500 or less may also be imported duty-free, but will need to be proven to be non-commercial. When entering Mexico, you must fill out a customs declaration, which must list all valuable items that are imported into the country. The import of fruits, vegetables and products made from them, plants, cuttings and plant seeds (the latter are permitted for import only on the basis of a special license from the Ministry of Agriculture), soil, flowers, fresh meat and meat products (the import of canned meat, with the exception of pork, is permitted) is prohibited. , medicines without documentary evidence of the need for their use (a prescription or medical card is required), psychotropic substances and pornographic publications, archaeological values, antiques, precious metals, rare animals and birds, as well as their skins and stuffed animals.

Holidays and non-working days

January 1 - New Year
February 5 - Constitution Day
February 24 - Flag Day
March 21 is the birthday of the country's national hero Benito Juarez
April 21 - Good Friday
March-April - Easter
April 30 - Children's Day
May 1 - Labor Day
May 5 - Anniversary of the Battle of Pueblo in 1862 (Indian holiday)
September 16 - Independence Day (1810)
October 12 - Discovery Day of America, "Dia de la Rasa"
November 20 - Revolution Day
December 8 - Day of the Immaculate Conception
December 12 - Day of the Virgin Mary of Guadalupe
December 25 - Christmas

Transport

Transport in Mexico, as in the United States, is predominantly automobile (bus). Although local airlines are also quite developed.
The country's largest airport, Benito Juarez, is located in Mexico City and receives and dispatches many flights within the country. At the same time, the flight time to the main cities of Mexico is as follows: 1 hour 15 minutes to Monterrey, 2 hours 15 minutes to Cancun, 50 minutes to Guadalajara and about 1 hour to Acapulco. There are buses to many cities within the country. You can buy a ticket for first class buses, luxury class buses, as well as regular buses. The country also has a developed railway network. But for some reason Mexicans prefer to use either buses or planes.
You will be transported to the California Peninsula by ferry. In cities there are all types of public transport - buses, in the capital - metro. You can also get within the city by minibuses (pesero in Spanish) that run along a specific route. The price of travel on buses and minibuses depends on the distance you are traveling. In Mexico City you can also use the metro. It has 9 lines. The metro covers the entire city, there are also lines to the airport and the train station. The metro operates daily from 5-00 am until 0-30. On Saturdays - from 6-00 to 1-30, and on holidays and Sundays from 7-00 to 0-30. Metro trains run frequently - every 1-2 minutes. The price of travel in the Mexican metro is low - only 1 peso. While in Mexico City, you can also use the services of a taxi, calling it by phone. The cost will be approximately 20 cents per kilometer (at night - about 30 cents). It must be said that most taxis are not equipped with meters, so when boarding, immediately agree on the price. Better yet, call a specialized taxi for tourists (from the hotel) - here the tariff is stable, and you can communicate in English.

Tips

It is customary to leave it in restaurants, bars, porters, taxi drivers, etc. - 10% of the total bill.

The shops

Stores in Mexico are open every day from 9-00 to 18-00. Near hotels, shops are open longer - until 22-00, also every day, including on Sunday.
City shops have lunch breaks from 13:00 to 16:00, and are closed on Sundays. Payment by credit cards is possible. VAT (IVA) in Mexico is 15%. By law, it must be included in the price, but in some expensive hotels prices are quoted without tax.

National cuisine

Mexican cuisine is famous for its culinary traditions all over the world. You may find some dishes a little spicy at first, but you will still appreciate their taste. As a rule, national dishes are not complete without at least one of three typical components: tortillas (corn tortillas), beans and hot chili peppers. The appetizers are genius, just like everything simple. Actually, most popular snacks - nachos, quesadillas, tacos, tostados, chimichangas - are the same unleavened corn tortillas (not only from corn, but also from wheat “imported” by the Spaniards) with fillings from corn, beans, peppers, cheeses, meats minced meat with tomatoes, for example, picadillo. Stews with seafood, legumes, and spices are common. Salt, chili and tortillas must be on the table. Hot dishes are prepared from several types of meat; goulash olla podrida, fried beef ribbons with a bean side dish, carne asado, and even the famous chili con carne, the preparation of which is held in real championships, are popular. Again, hot flatbreads with fillings: reminiscent of our dumplings or empanadas, which were once a simple omelette, and then turned into a kind of enchiladas rolls, thick, like packs on the back of a donkey, burritos. Well, for lovers of antiquity - aromatic tamales, steamed pieces of corn dough, wrapped in a leaf of corn on the cob and topped with a sauce of your choice. The most famous Mexican dessert is the sweet royal bread Rosca de Reyes, the center of which is filled with dried fruit, and a doll is placed inside, symbolizing the Christ Child and the onset of the fiesta.

Attractions

The true ancient monuments and attractions in Mexico are pyramids. There are many of them in the country, but only a few are available for viewing. Many of the pyramids are buried under cultural layers and covered with dense tropical vegetation, so that they are just green hills. Most pyramids are multi-layered structures: the oldest is located inside, and above it there are several later superstructures and facings. The most famous and probably the most ancient are the pyramids of Teotihuacan.
Teotihuacan(Teotihuacan, "place where the gods are born") is 50 km away. northeast of Mexico City, and is a cult place for many peoples of “Mesoamerica.” It is still unclear when the first people began to settle here and why the city was abandoned, but its architectural monuments are amazing. Temple of Quetzalcoatl and the 5-kilometer Road of the Dead (40 m wide), the Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon, the Palace of Quetzal-Papalotl and the Palace of the Jaguars, the ancient Temple of the Feathered Shells, the Quetzal Butterfly Palace, the Plaza de la Luna and the Tepantitla residential complex with the famous frescoes of Paradise of Tlaloc - this is just a small part of the local “treasures of history”, assembled from huge stone blocks and strictly subordinated to some unknown system. In the center of the archaeological zone there is a wonderful museum with an exhibition of rare archaeological objects and a scale model of Teotihuacan.
Another impressive group of pyramids are the Pyramids Mitla and Monte Albana, which is located near the city of Oaxaca. The ancient Zapotec cities developed especially magnificently in the 4th-7th centuries, but by 1400 the former capital of the Zapotecs, Monte Albana, had turned into a huge cemetery with very rich burials. The treasures discovered already in the 20th century in burial No. 7 are one of the richest archaeological finds in the world. Some of these treasures - Aztec gold jewelry depicting the god of death, the sun, the ball game and others, are on display in a museum in Oaxaca, 100 km from the Mexican capital. Today this pyramid is a hill overgrown with forest, on top of which stands a Catholic church. In this way, the Spaniards indicated their superiority over the ancient Indian civilization.
The city center is El Zocalo Square(Constitution Square, the second largest in the world), surrounded by the miraculously preserved buildings of the Aztec Tenochtitlan (Templo Mayor) and buildings of the colonial era, including the largest Catholic cathedral in Latin America, the Metropolitan Cathedral (1563-1667) and the Palace of Cortes. Also interesting is the Square of Three Cultures in the center of Mexico City, where there is a unique archaeological zone with the stone foundations of ancient Aztec buildings, above which rises the Catholic Cathedral, which, in turn, is adjacent to modern residential buildings bordering the square.
Uxmal("built three times") - an important Mayan ceremonial center in Yucatan. The local historical monuments are simply countless - the Great Pyramid (100 m long and 70 m wide with a height of more than 30 m), the Wizard's Pyramid ("house of the dwarf") 38 m high, the perfectly preserved building of the ruler's palace with its famous "double-headed throne" Jaguar", Temple of the Phalluses, House of Turtles, Ball Court, Nuns' Quadrangle and Pyramid of the Old Witch. In the evenings, the colors of a light and sound show spill over the forested ruins of the great city, giving this place an absolutely fantastic look.
Definitely worth a visit National Palace, decorated with the famous frescoes of Diego Rivera, Garibaldi Square and the world's largest bullring, as well as Alameda Park and the nearby Palacio de Bella Art (Palace of Fine Arts), which contains the best works of Mexican culture, or the Xochimilco canals on the outskirts Mexico City, where people still live the same way they did 500 years ago. Don't forget to go to the Basilica of the patroness of Mexico - Our Lady of Guadalupe, where a huge religious procession is held on her feast day (December 12), visit the first European quarter of the capital - Coyoacan, or walk along Paseo de la Reforma (Reforma Avenue) - copies Parisian Champs Elysees (and by the way - also full of shops and restaurants) with colorful buildings of the late 19th century. and numerous fountains.

In the very center of this giant "anthill" is a pedestrian enclave and nightlife area - Zone Rose, with many shops, shops, restaurants and cafes - "cantina". You can take a break from the bustle of the city in the parks of Pedregal, Alameda, Bosc de Chapultepec ("grasshopper hill", the largest park in Mexico City) with the presidential palace Castillo de Chapultepec, where the country's largest National Anthropological Museum is located (there is a good zoo nearby) , or the forested area of ​​La Marquez on the outskirts of the city, which is also famous for its large number of restaurants, cafes and attractions. But huge Mexico City, despite all its attractions, is not very suitable for relaxation, so it is better to head straight to its famous suburbs.

Resorts

City and port of Acapulco on the Pacific coast of Mexico, a modern highway connects with Mexico City. Acapulco has a beautiful natural bay. It was founded in the 16th century and during the colonial era it was an important transit point on the “Asian Road” - a trade route from Spain to the countries of Southeast Asia. Acapulco is one of the best seaside climatic resorts in the Western Hemisphere. There is an airport, a shopping center, and a yacht club here. Dozens of fashionable multi-storey hotels are built along the coast on the beaches of Condeza, which are especially actively filled at the height of the tourist season. There are hundreds of thousands of tourists here. Unlike temperate countries, the best time to holiday in Mexico is the end of December and all of January, when the country’s coasts experience dry, warm weather with temperatures of 25-30 °C, moderated by sea breezes. The best place for swimming is the beaches of Caleta in the Old Acapulco area. Here you can rent a boat and go to Roqueta Island, where jaguars and tigers, giraffes and armadillos live in special pens. The coastal waters of Acapulco are very rich in wildlife. Barracuda, tuna, seuk, dorado, striped marlin and Pacific sailfish can all be seen when local fishermen's boats come ashore at midday. But fishing also promises good luck for vacationers. Local instructors guarantee fishing masters a “large fish”, which, by Acapulco standards, can be 2-2.5 m. Acapulco also offers a breathtaking spectacle - professional divers jumping from 20- and 35-meter cliffs into a narrow bay where the depth is not exceeds 3.5 m. The resort has many bars and restaurants offering exquisite seafood delicacies. There is also a cabaret called La Jacaranda.
Cancun- one of the most famous resorts on the Gulf Coast, located on the Yucatan Peninsula. It is built on a long and narrow 25-kilometer sand spit, which faces the Caribbean Sea on one side and the lagoon that has formed between the spit and the shore on the other. It is famous for its endless beaches with white sand, crystal clear sea water and proximity to the architectural monuments of the Mayan civilization. This is the most visited and popular resort in Mexico. The predominant nationality of tourists at the resort are Americans. The coastline of the Cancun resort from a bird's eye view resembles the number "7", dividing the resort into two parts: "short" and "long". The short part is characterized by calm seas, since it is closed from the ocean by the island of Isla Mujeres. But there are some disadvantages here - the presence of algae in the water, which clog the beach and make the sea not so clear. In addition, in this part of the beach area there is a port, which also has a bad effect on the cleanliness of the water. The advantages of staying in hotels in this part of the resort are the proximity to entertainment venues and the city center. The city is 10 minutes from here by bus (runs with very short breaks). The main feature of the “long part” is the constant waves, since they do not encounter any obstacles on their way from the open ocean. But at the same time, you can not only splash around in the sea, but also feel the healing power of a water massage - no worse than in a jacuzzi. The water in this part of the resort is crystal clear, and since there are no algae, the beach is in perfect condition. The seabed is sandy, but the sand does not rise when entering the water. The downside of the “long part” is that this beach is located further from the city, 15-20 minutes by bus. Cancun has a very mild maritime climate, slightly dependent on the time of year. Average daily temperature in (in degrees Celsius, maximum/minimum): January - 27/19, February - 27/20, March - 28/21, April - 29/22, May - 31/25, June - 31/25, July - 32/26, August - 32/25, September - 31/24, October - 30/23, November - 28/22, December - 27/21.
Los Cabos- a new expensive and prestigious resort located in the south of the California peninsula. The Los Cabos resort area stretches along the sea for almost 40 km between the cities of San Lucas and San Jose del Cabo, where the Pacific Ocean meets the Sea of ​​Cortez. Los Cabos has luxurious hotels, surrounded by greenery, and behind the hotels, where the resort area ends, there is a desert and colorful dunes, alien landscapes that are very enlivened by a variety of cacti. One of the main natural attractions of this place is the rock "El Arco" - a giant rock in the shape of an arch. There are endless white sandy beaches along the coastline here.
Puerto Vallarta Resort is located on the Pacific coast in the largest bay of Mexico - Banderas. This bay is bordered by mountains. The city itself has a colonial feel - the cobbled streets are lined with white houses with red tiled roofs. There are several beach areas on the coast. Playa de Oro is known for its good conditions for water sports. In the north of the resort there are the best places for windsurfing. But the most popular place is Playa de los Muertos. This beach is surrounded by restaurants and shops.
Cozumel Island is the largest Caribbean island in Mexico, which is located 19 km off the coast of the state of Quintana Roo. The area of ​​the island is 647 km². The climate here is warm and humid, with heavy rainfall in summer and an average temperature of +26ºС. The island is surrounded by lush vegetation, mostly jungle, and is surrounded by a rocky coastline, white beaches, lagoons and mangroves. Also close to the island is a group of coral reefs that are part of the world's second largest coral system. In addition, the island is home to two major marine sanctuaries: Cozumel National Reef Marine Park and Chankanaab Nature Park, which were created to protect areas of great marine diversity and attract researchers and biologists from around the world. There are excellent spots for scuba diving and nature walks.

Mexico is a country that few people know anything interesting about. Most inhabitants of the planet know this state as the place where such cinematic masterpieces as “Wild Rose”, “Simply Maria”, “The Rich Also Cry” and other soap operas were born, which won the hearts of millions of residents of post-Soviet territories in the nineties. Meanwhile, Mexico is a beautiful land, with an ancient and magical history, amazing sights inherited from the Mayan prophets and unsurpassed nature that has been formed over the centuries.

The very first civilizations

The area of ​​Mexico is 1,972,550 km2. In addition, its territories include approximately 6,000 km 2 of islands located in the Pacific Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, the Mexican Ocean and Naturally, not all of these lands immediately belonged to the country. They were conquered, given away, returned back, and so on until the state known to modern man was formed. Excavations in 1947, carried out in Tepespan and other possessions of the country, proved that no less than 22 thousand years ago the first person appeared in this part of America. By the fifth-sixth century BC, the first settled civilizations were formed here. They grew legumes, pumpkins and maize.

Historians know several ancient cultures of Mexico. One of them is the Olmecs, who inhabited the modern area of ​​​​Mexico somewhere from the 12th to the 5th century BC. e. The centers of this civilization were mainly located in Tres Zapotes, Cerro de las Mesas and La Venta. Today these are the states of Tabasco, Guerrero and Veracruz. The Olmecs had a fairly strong influence on civilizations that arose a little later. Their prosperity dates back to the 4th-9th centuries AD. Today these cultures are considered classic. These include the civilization of Teotihuacan, Zapotecs, Totonacs, and, of course, the Mayans.

Arrival of the Spaniards

Mexican lands were famous for their extraordinary wealth. The Spanish conquistadors had heard about their treasures. In 1511, a Spanish ship was wrecked near This was the first meeting between the peoples inhabiting Central America and Europeans. Jeronimo de Aguilar is a man who managed to survive that disaster. He stayed to live with the Mayans. Jerónimo mastered the language of this people, and eight years later he became a translator on an expedition led by Hernán Cortés.

Mexico is a country that was simultaneously explored and conquered in 1517. Diego Velazquez, the governor of Cuba, sent several expeditions here. The first of them was led in 1517 by Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba, the second was led by Juan de Grijalva in 1518. And the last one took place in 1519. Its head was Hernan Cortes. It was he who conquered the empire that belonged to the Aztecs and became the governor of those territories that he managed to subordinate to his laws.

Sights of Mexico

Mexico is a country that has experienced a lot of suffering in its lifetime. And the sights of the country are, of course, witnesses to all these trials. There are very, very many of them here. It is quite difficult to visit all these amazing places. But there are some special exhibits that simply need to be seen in person. One of these is This giant reached a height of 5636 meters and is considered the highest Mexican peak. Orizaba is mostly called a mountain, but in reality it is not. After all, this is a real volcano. The largest number of eruptions occurred at the border of the 16th-17th centuries. During this time there were as many as seven powerful explosions. After one of them in 1687, Orizaba fell asleep. The Aztecs called it Citlatepetl - the mountain that strives for the stars.

Fort San Diego is also a must-visit. This is a pentagonal building, shaped like a star. It is located in Acapulco. The fort was built to protect merchant ships and the city from pirates from Holland and England. San Diego was built back in the 17th century. This is the only historical landmark in Acapulco that has survived to this day.

Formation of the Mexican capital

The capital of Mexico is called Mexico City. But the city did not always bear this name. Previously it was called Tenochtitlan. The city was founded in 1325 by the Aztecs. There is a legend according to which Huitzilopochtli - the sun god - ordered the Indians to come here. He ordered the Aztecs to settle in the place where they would meet a proud eagle, who would sit on a tall cactus and hold a snake in its beak. The Indians searched for such a territory for a long time, but finally found it and founded a settlement there. This is how Tenochtitlan appeared on the western shore of Lake Texcoco. Later it became the capital of the Aztec power.

The capital of Mexico is indescribably beautiful. The first Europeans, who were struck by the splendor of Tenochtitlan, called it the Venice of the Aztecs. This unsurpassed city existed for almost two hundred years. It was conquered by the Spaniards, so it was greatly destroyed. In 1521, a new city was created on the site of the ruins - Mexico City.

City of contrasts

The capital of Mexico is a city full of contrasts. You either like him at first sight, or he causes irritation and a burning desire to leave him immediately and go somewhere a little calmer. Unparalleled museums and buildings coexist with poor neighborhoods, while ancient churches and fragrant parks, synonymous with the word “peace,” border noisy and busy streets. In short, Mexico City is a multifaceted city, it is special, unpredictable and fascinating, just like the country itself.

Mexico City Museums

The capital's museums are one of the main attractions of the city. Mexico, the capital Mexico City in particular, is simply oversaturated with them. The most beautiful and impressive institutions are located here. First of all, I would like to mention the Mexico City Museum. It is located in a palace made in the Baroque style. was built in the 18th century and belonged to the count family of Santiago de Calimaya, who was a descendant of the famous conquistador Cortes. The museum in this house opened only in 1964. There are 26 halls demonstrating the history of the development of the capital of Mexico from the time of the Aztecs to modern days.

The house-museum of Leon Trotsky is considered no less famous. The great publicist lived in it for the last few months of his existence, and here he was killed in 1940. The capital of Mexico is the city that provided political shelter to the famous revolutionary in 1937. On August 20, 1990, the house-museum was officially opened. There is a public library here, in which Trotsky’s works and some of his documents are carefully preserved.

Palaces of Mexico City

Among all the attractions of this city, I would like to note the palaces, which are majestically located in their honorary territories. The capital of Mexico (photos can be seen in our article) boasts the Chapultepec Palace. This is the most famous castle in all of North America. Emperors, presidents and governors of the country once stayed here. The palace is located on the hill of the same name, the height of which reaches 2325 meters above sea level. King Bernard de Galvez initiated the founding of the castle. Today, numerous excursions are held here, which appeal to all visitors without exception.

The Palace of Fine Arts is another attraction that has captured the hearts of many travelers. This is an opera house, and it is located in the very center of Mexico City. The building is the largest structure on the planet, for the construction of which Carrara marble was used. The domes of this architectural masterpiece are decorated with Italian marble. And the interior of the theater was created by Federico Mariscal.

Latin American Tower

As mentioned above, the country of Mexico (whose capital is Mexico City) is a state full of contrasts. But besides them, it is also filled with paradoxes. One of these is the Latin American Tower - a 183-meter building located in the center of the capital. This building is located in a seismic zone, but this did not prevent it from successfully surviving several powerful earthquakes.

The tower has 44 floors. And the structure was created not so long ago, in 1956. Today it is used as an office center. You can move from floor to floor using a high-speed elevator, of which, by the way, there are two: one takes you to the 37th floor in just half a minute, and the other reaches the 42nd floor, where the cafe and observation deck are located.

The day of the Dead

No, no, don't be afraid, it's traditional. Just if you are lucky enough to be in the country when it takes place, be sure to visit it. The country of Mexico (the capital in particular) celebrates this day on the first and second of November. These events are an occasion for the whole family and friends to gather to pray and remember those who are no longer around. Not a single bank is open in the country during the celebrations. So, people go to cemeteries, where they want to spend a little time with the souls of the departed. At the graves they build altars on which they display photographs, favorite drinks and dishes, and memorial items of the one who rests in the ground.

The skull is the main symbol of this holiday. People celebrating the Day of the Dead cover their faces with masks, wear skeleton costumes, make skulls out of chocolate or sugar, and write their names on the forehead of a unique dessert. Perhaps this is a little wild for us, but there it is in the order of things. Sweet skulls are given as souvenirs to both the living and the dead. The capital of Mexico is called Mexico City, and in the first two days of November it can be called a dead city.

You might be interested

Mexico is an amazing country, and the capital of Mexico is generally something unique. And there are things that will surprise every person for whom this region has even the slightest interest. So, here are some fun facts about this state:

• Every year it is visited by 20 million people.
• Brazil - Mexico is a football match that took place between these countries in the summer of 2014. The game ended with the score 0:0.
• The pyramid called Chichen Itza, which is one of the seven wonders of the world, is located in Mexico.
• uses 80 varieties of pepper.

Instead of a conclusion

Mexico is the birthplace of everyone's favorite chocolate. It is also the only Latin American country to host the Olympic Games. So pack your bags, an exciting journey awaits you!

Mexico as a state is officially called the United Mexican States. The mere mention of this state evokes many different associations. For example, today the States of Mexico are known for their resorts on the Yucatan Peninsula, or the long coastline of the western states on the Pacific Ocean. Some people call Mexicans “Aztecs.” Others will remember the Mayan Indians who lived here. The result is a very diverse country with a rich history.

In the 2nd millennium BC, on the territory of modern Mexico, a state formation of the Mayan Indians was formed, which existed and grew until the 10th century AD. It was a highly cultural nation, very developed in various exact sciences, including engineering and mathematics, as well as construction. The Mayan Indian tribes occupied most of the southern part of Mexico, including the island of Yucatan.

In the central part of the state, in the pre-Columbian era, another state formation of the Aztecs developed. Basically they lived divided into tribes and were a very warlike people. From 1376, until the beginning of the 16th century, which was marked by the Spanish Conquest, few could provide worthy resistance to the Aztecs. But in 1521, their last emperor was defeated and the city of Tenochtitlan was destroyed. Nowadays the current capital of Mexico, Mexico City, stands on its ruins.

Then began a long period of colonization from the Spanish metropolis. During this time, due to hostility and introduced European diseases, most of the local population died out. Some territories were captured without much destruction. Some were completely turned into ruins. From 1521 to 1810, the period of New Spain lasted in Mexico. During this time, many European values ​​and culture grew here. Active construction of cities was underway.

After 1810, with the gaining of independence and the proclamation of the Mexican Empire, which included the territory of modern Mexico and part of the currently existing Central American states. It did not exist for long, until 1823, when part of the southern territories separated from the empire. The key year for modern Mexico, from the point of view of the political and state system, was 1824. It was then that the republican constitution was adopted, which marked the creation of a federal state. 19 states and 4 territories were created.

About ten years later, the Mexican state of Texas separated and formed its own republic, which later became part of the United States. There was unrest in other states as well. The struggle for power between liberals and conservatives had a negative impact on the integrity and economy of the state. So in the 50s of the 19th century, the state of Yucatan actually formed its own separatist republic. At the same time, a war was waged between Mexico and America due to the former Mexican state of Texas becoming part of the latter and US claims to other states of Mexico. As a result, after the signing of the corresponding treaty to end the war, New Mexico and Upper California became part of America.

The endless civil wars of the second half of the 19th century prompted major European states to send their armed forces to establish order in Mesquique. By the end of the 1800s, the situation in the country had stabilized somewhat, but Mexico became increasingly dependent, economically, on its neighboring United States. The state was also restless in the first half of the 20th century, until the end of World War II, after which the economy and new reforms made it possible to improve the situation.

Today Mexico is divided into 31 states. The capital, Mexico City, has the special status of a federal district. It is the political, economic and cultural center of the United Mexican States. For more than two hundred years, the territory of Mexico has been constantly changing, and the number of states with their administrative boundaries has changed accordingly. The boundaries and names of all modern states of Mexico were finally established in 1974, when the creation of Baja California and Baja California Sur, located on the peninsula of the same name, was finally approved.

6 states with famous cities

The administrative center of the state of Chapala is the second largest Mexican metropolis -. Jalisco is also home to Mexico's largest freshwater lake, Chapala. Although it is mostly shallow, with an average depth of about 5 meters, and its natural resources have diminished over the years, it still provides habitat for many migratory birds.

The administrative center and largest city of the state of Guerrero is the world famous Acapulco. Despite the rather low level of the state's economy as a whole, Acapulco is the most delicious place for tourists coming to the west coast of Mexico. Long beaches, a unique bay for ships, and rocky areas make the city the most developed resort on the Pacific coast. The fact is that since the 50s of the last century, many Hollywood stars loved to come here on vacation. However, large investments from the country's state budget, the construction of luxury hotels along with hotels for poor tourists and the general development of infrastructure have made the resort accessible to tourists of all categories.

is a popular city in southeastern Mexico on the northeastern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo. The city is an important tourist destination. The city is located on the Caribbean Sea and is one of the most eastern points of Mexico.

The city is located in the heart of the country in the Federal District of the same name. It is the political, economic and industrial center of Mexico

Monterrey is the capital and largest city of the northeastern state of Nuevo Leon, Mexico. The city is the ninth largest city in the country. Monterrey is the commercial center of northern Mexico and is home to many significant international corporations.

Tijuana is the largest city in the Mexican state of Baja California. It is Mexico's largest and fastest growing metropolitan area and has a strong influence on the local economy, education, culture, arts and politics.

The most dangerous states

It is Mexican laboratories that operate north of the border that supply most of the methamphetamine.

The United Nations estimates that nearly 90% of the cocaine sold in the United States originates in South America and is smuggled through Mexico.

Mexico is the largest foreign supplier of marijuana and the largest source of heroin for the American market. Most methamphetamine sold in the United States is produced in Mexico

Hot spots for drug cartel activity and human trafficking are:

• Tamaulipas on the US border;
• Sinaloa;
• Colima;
• Michoacan;
• Guerrero.

The last four are located on the Pacific coast.

Tamaulipas shares a border with Texas, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to Laredo. The State Department has previously discouraged travel here, but the new warnings are even more serious because the state has been designated Level 4, the highest level of potential danger.

Another 11 Mexican states have received Level 3 status, prompting people to reconsider their planned travel itinerary.

Colima has seen a spike in murders in recent years due to the rise of cartels. It now has the highest murder rate in Mexico, with 83.3 murders per 100,000 inhabitants.

The state with the second highest murder rate, 61.6 per 100,000 people, is Baja California. It is home to the popular resort of Los Cabos, which saw an 18 percent increase in tourist arrivals in 2017.

Esponda said local officials and tourism operators are investing in improved security, including camera systems and the construction of a new maritime base.

Here are the most dangerous states in America for 2018:

• New Mexico;
• Alaska;
• Louisiana;
• Arkansas;
• South Carolina;
• Tennessee;
• Alabama;
• Arizona;
• Oklahoma;
• Missouri.

Top 5 crime states in the USA:

• New Mexico has the highest crime rate. It is one of the least densely populated places in the country. The number of violent crimes per person is the second highest, and the number of property crimes is the highest in America.
• Tennessee has the 4th highest violent crime rate. Over the past year, there have been 2,700 reported rapes a year here, which is about 7 a day.
• Louisiana – 2nd place. This is one of the poorest states, in which the connection between poverty and crime is clearly visible, because in Louisiana most of the population lives below their means.
• Arkansas ranks 4th. It is another poor state in the south with much higher rates of murder, rape, assault and robbery per capita. Over the course of the year, more than 7,100 cars were stolen here.
• South Carolina - 3rd place. There is a lot of property crime here, especially in places like Myrtle Beach, which is a major tourist hotspot. Many crimes and thefts occur in the summer, which is associated with the seasonal influx of tourists.

The border between the United States and Mexico stretches nearly 3,300 km from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean. The Rio Grande runs along more than 2,000 km and has no natural geographic barrier, except for a small section along the Colorado River. About 1,100 km more of the border is barbed wire between the United States and Mexico.

The US Border Patrol uses thousands of cameras and underground sensors, as well as aircraft, drones and boats to monitor the border.

United States of America bordering Mexico:

• California: Baja California;
• Arizona: Sonora;
• New Mexico: Chihuahua;
• Texas: Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas.

The "US-Mexico border" is relatively new. Its construction lasted between 1849 and 1855. The border can rather be called a porous membrane through which a huge amount of money, prohibited products, illegal immigrants, smugglers and their goods, as well as drugs pass through. That is why the area here is under the most concentrated police attention. Conditions here are also worsened by extreme heat and water shortages.

The busiest border crossing points:

• San Isidro;
• El Paso;
• Calexico.

San Ysidro - The state of California is connected to Tijuana, Mexico. The number of people who cross the border through the bridge is approximately 8 million. Every day this is about 30,000 people on average. The San Ysidro Port of Entry is one of the busiest crossings on the US-Mexico border.

In 2015, San Diego opened an additional airport terminal that allows people to be transported from the city of San Diego directly to the Mexican airport, easing wait times at the San Ysidro Bridge.

The El Paso gateway serves approximately 8 million people, averaging 25,000 per day. It connects El Paso, Texas and Juarez, Mexico. The Paso del Norte Bridge was originally built in the 1800s, although it has since been rebuilt. Between 600 and 1,000 children legally cross the Paso del Norte Bridge to go to school each day, according to Customs and Border Protection data.

The port at Calexico provides border crossings for 4.5 million people, allowing approximately 14,000 citizens to cross the border each day. It links the cities of Calexico, California and Mexicali, Mexico. The bridge was built in 1974.

The name of the pedestrian bridge is a combination of the words California and Mexico - Calexico.

Easternmost and westernmost States

Among all 31 states of Mexico, only 14 are located in the central part of the country and are landlocked. The remaining 17 are washed by the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Gulf of Mexico in the east. Mexico is something like a triangle with an acute angle going down.

All western states of Mexico have access to the Pacific Ocean. The northwestern part includes the California Peninsula, which contains two states. It is a narrow long strip, maximum 240 km wide and 1.2 thousand km long. On the eastern side it is washed by the waters of the Gulf of California, which almost completely cuts it off from the mainland. Most of the state of Baja California Sur is desert.

Almost at the same latitudes, only on the opposite side of the Gulf of California, are the states of Sonora and Sinaloa, formed by division in 1830. These states also have a large desert area and this is where the famous tree cacti grow. A little to the south is the small state of Nayarit, whose geography is not much different from its northern neighbors.

Only in the state of Jalisco does the terrain begin to change a little, moving away from desert to more vegetative and alpine landscapes. Sometimes the height of the mountain range reaches over 4 thousand meters.

Below is the smallest state on the Pacific coast of Mexico - Colima. Its distinctive feature is the sharp difference in height from zero to 3.8 thousand meters. There is an active volcano of the same name here, which has erupted up to 40 times over the past five centuries.

Next comes the highland state of Michoacan, where the average height of the mountain range above sea level reaches 2.9 thousand meters. At one time, the Aztecs and the Purpech Indian peoples were the owners of these lands. The round-shaped pyramids they left behind still attract curious tourists.

Guerrero is a Mexican state in which a fairly large part of the Indian population still lives, amounting to about 400 thousand people. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the Spanish conquest did not meet fierce resistance here. Basically, most of the local Indians died due to European diseases.

In terms of flora and fauna, the most attractive southwestern state of Mexico is Oaxaca. 7 large reserves are concentrated here, in which there are hundreds of species of different birds, reptiles, fish and almost 10 thousand plants. Lagoons and bays provide an ideal environment for such biodiversity.

The southernmost tip of western Mexico is the state of Chiapas. Although it has suffered greatly due to political and civil conflicts, its territory is characterized by much of the natural and cultural heritage of the Mayans and Spanish conquistadors. Despite the presence of attractions and access to the ocean, the state remains one of the poorest regions of Mexico, with very low literacy rates.

Eastern states

Quintana Roo is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the east and north, and Belize to the south. Quintana Roo is home to many of Mexico's most popular vacation destinations, including cities such as Cancun, Cozumel, Playa del Carmen and many more. It is in this state that the most ancient Mayan ruins are located.

Much of Veracruz is located along the Gulf Coast. Veracruz is well known for still being home to many indigenous people with a rich ethnic heritage.

Hidalgo is home to a number of indigenous cultures that have remained relatively unaltered and unharmed.

Tabasco is located in the southeast, along the Gulf of Mexico. It is located on the border with Guatemala. Much of Tabasco is covered in tropical rainforest, and the area receives much more rainfall than the rest of the country.

Yucatan's northern part faces the Gulf of Mexico. The state is one of the safest areas in Mexico and is popular among tourists.

Tamaulipas borders the US state of Texas. The capital city of Guadeloupe, Victoria, is named after the country's first president.

Campeche borders the states of Yucatan, Quintana Roo and Tabasco. Campeche was formerly part of the Yucatan province, but separated due to political tensions. This area is home to important ancient Mayan captivity. It is little studied in comparison with other areas.

The content of the article

MEXICO, United Mexican States, a state occupying the northern, widest part of the isthmus that extends south of the US border and connects North America with South America. In the west, the shores of Mexico are washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California, in the east - by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea; in the south it borders Guatemala and Belize. Mexico was the cradle of ancient civilizations in the New World. Now it is home to a fifth of the total population of Latin America.

Colonial period.

In 1528, the Spanish crown limited the power of Cortes by sending an audience to Mexico - an administrative-judicial panel reporting directly to the king. In 1535, Mexico became part of the newly created Viceroyalty of New Spain. Antonio de Mendoza became the first viceroy, the personal representative of the Spanish monarch in New Spain; in 1564 he was replaced in office by Luis de Velasco. For three centuries, from 1521 to 1821, Mexico remained a colonial possession of Spain. Despite the active interaction of local and European traditions, culturally Mexican society presented a rather motley picture. The colonial economy was based on the exploitation of Indians, who were forced to work on their lands and mines. The Spaniards introduced new agricultural technologies and new crops into traditional Indian agriculture, including citrus fruits, wheat, sugar cane and olives, taught the Indians animal husbandry, began the systematic development of the earth's interior and created new mining centers - Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Pachuca, Taxco, etc.

The Roman Catholic Church became the most important instrument of political and cultural influence on the Indians. Its pioneer missionaries actually expanded the sphere of Spanish influence.

During the 18th century. The Bourbons, who ruled Spain, under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment, carried out a number of reforms in the colonies aimed at centralizing power and liberalizing the economy. Mexico produced outstanding administrators, including the outstanding viceroys Antonio Maria Bucareli (1771–1779) and Count Revillagigedo (1789–1794).

War for independence.

The anti-colonial war in Mexico, which unfolded after the occupation of Spain by Napoleon's troops, developed under the influence of the Great French Revolution and the American War of Independence. At the same time, the liberation movement did not originate among the metropolitan Creoles (whites of American origin), but in the very heart of the mining region and in the initial stages had the character of almost a race war. The uprising, which began in the village of Dolores on September 16, 1810, was led by the priest Miguel Hidalgo (1753–1811). Obeying his call “Independence and death to the Spaniards!”, which went down in history as the “Cry of Dolores,” the rebels, mostly Indians and mestizos, moved towards the capital with the inspiration of the crusaders. The delusional and reckless Padre Hidalgo turned out to be a bad military leader, and ten months later he was captured by the Spaniards, defrocked and shot. September 16 is celebrated in Mexico as Independence Day, and Hidalgo is revered as a national hero.

The banner of the liberation struggle was taken up by another parish priest, a republican by conviction, Jose Maria Morelos (1765–1815), who showed extraordinary abilities as a military leader and organizer. The Chilpancing Congress (November 1813), convened on his initiative, adopted a declaration of Mexican independence. However, two years later Morelos suffered the same fate as his predecessor Hidalgo. Over the next five years, the independence movement in Mexico took on the character of guerrilla warfare under the leadership of local leaders such as Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca or Guadalupe Victoria in the states of Puebla and Veracruz.

The success of the Spanish Liberal Revolution of 1820 convinced conservative Mexican Creoles that they should no longer rely on the mother country. The Creole elite of Mexican society joined the independence movement, which ensured its victory. Creole Colonel Agustin de Iturbide (1783–1824), who had once fought against Hidalgo, changed his political course, united his army with the forces of Guerrero and together with him on February 24, 1821 in the city of Iguala (modern Iguala de la Independencia) put forward a program called the Iguala Plan. This plan declared “three guarantees”: Mexican independence and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy, the preservation of the privileges of the Catholic Church and equal rights for Creoles and Spaniards. Without encountering serious resistance, Iturbide's army occupied Mexico City on September 27, and the next day the country's independence was proclaimed as part of the Iguala Plan.

Independent Mexico

in the first half of the 19th century.

Independence in itself did not ensure the consolidation of the nation and the formation of new political institutions. The caste-hierarchical structure of society remained unchanged, except for the fact that the Creoles replaced the Spaniards at the top of the social pyramid. The development of new social relations was hampered by the church with its privileges, the army command and large latifundists, who continued to expand their estates at the expense of Indian lands. The economy remained colonial in nature: it was entirely focused on food production and the extraction of precious metals. Therefore, many events in Mexican history can be seen as attempts to overcome the oppression of the colonial legacy, consolidate the nation and gain full independence.

Mexico emerged from the war of liberation greatly weakened - with an empty treasury, a destroyed economy, interrupted trade ties with Spain, and an enormously bloated bureaucracy and army. Internal political instability hampered the speedy resolution of these problems.

After the declaration of independence of Mexico, a provisional government was formed, but in May 1822 Iturbide carried out a coup d'état and crowned himself emperor under the name Augustine I. In early December 1822, the commander of the Veracruz garrison, Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana (1794–1876), rebelled and proclaimed a republic. He soon joined forces with the rebels of Guerrera and Victoria and in March 1823 forced Iturbide to abdicate and emigrate. The Founding Congress, convened in November of that year, consisted of the warring camps of liberals and conservatives. As a result, a compromise constitution was adopted: at the insistence of the liberals, Mexico was declared a federal republic like the United States, while the conservatives managed to establish the status of the Catholic religion as the official and only permitted in the country and preserve various kinds of privileges of the clergy and the military, including their immunity from civil courts.

The first legally elected president of Mexico was M. Guadalupe Victoria (1824–1828). In 1827, the conservatives rebelled, but were defeated. In 1829, the candidate from the liberal party, Vicente Guerrero, became president, abolishing slavery and repelling Spain's last attempt to restore its power in the former colony. Guerrero lasted in power for less than a year and was overthrown by conservatives in December 1829. Liberals responded to their opponents with another coup d'etat and in 1833 transferred power to Santa Ana.

This typical Latin American caudillo (leader, dictator) was re-elected as president five times and ruled the country himself or through figureheads for 22 years. He provided the country with internal political stability and economic growth, accompanied by an expansion of the middle class. However, Santa Ana's foreign policy led the country to national disaster. In the war with the United States, Mexico lost almost two-thirds of its territory - the current North American states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas and Utah.

The United States' territorial claims to Mexico emerged at the very beginning of the 19th century; they assumed a threatening character in the late 1820s, when North American settlers began to penetrate into Texas in large numbers. The colonists experienced severe labor shortages on their plantations and sought to legalize the slave trade. To this end, in 1836 the Texans separated from Mexico and proclaimed Texas an independent republic, which was recognized by the United States in 1837. In 1845, the North American Congress adopted a resolution to include Texas into the United States as a slave state, and the next year, in response to protests from Mexico, declared war on it. Santa Ana suffered one defeat after another, until in September 1847 he surrendered the capital and signed an act of surrender.

According to the peace treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), imposed by the victors, Mexico gave its northern provinces to the United States. This defeat had disastrous consequences for the Mexican economy, not to mention a difficult moral legacy in relations between neighboring countries. But Mexico's territorial losses did not end there. In 1853, Santa Ana, now back in power, sold the Mesilla Valley to the United States under the Gadsden Treaty. In 1854, the governor of the state of Guerrero, Juan Alvarez, and the head of customs, Ignacio Comonfort, rebelled and spoke in the town of Ayutla (modern Ayutla de los Libes) with a call for the overthrow of the dictatorship of Santa Ana. The rebellion quickly grew into a revolution, and in 1855 the dictator was expelled from the country.

The period of reforms.

The liberal reforms carried out by Benito Juárez (1806–1872) represented the second true revolution in Mexican history. In his activities, Juarez relied on the ideologists of the middle class - lawyers, journalists, intellectuals, small entrepreneurs who sought to create a democratic federal republic, end the privileges of the clergy and the military, ensure economic prosperity of the state by redistributing the colossal wealth of the church, and, most importantly, create a class of small owners who will be able to resist the dominance of large landowners and form the backbone of a democratic society. In essence, it was a bourgeois revolution carried out by mestizos.

As Minister of Justice, Juarez carried out reforms in 1855 and 1856. Of these, the most important were the so-called. the Juarez Law, which abolished the judicial privileges of the military and clergy, and the Lerdo Law, which deprived the church of the right to own land and real estate, with the exception of places of worship and the homes of monks. The law leased land estates to civil corporations, which, despite the resistance of Juarez, was used to seize Indian communal lands, especially later, during the era of the dictatorship of P. Diaz.

The culmination of the liberals' reform activities was the adoption of the progressive constitution of 1857, which caused a three-year bloody civil war. In this war, the United States supported Juarez, who became president of Mexico in 1858. England, France and Spain patronized the opposition, who were ultimately defeated. During the war, Juarez accepted the so-called package. “Reform laws” proclaiming the separation of church and state and the nationalization of church property, introducing civil marriage, etc. Subsequently, in the early 1870s, these laws were introduced into the constitution.

The main problem of the Juarez government was foreign debts. After the Mexican Congress announced a two-year suspension of payments on foreign debts in July 1861, representatives of England, France and Spain signed a convention in London on armed intervention in Mexico. At the beginning of 1862, the combined forces of the three states occupied the most important Mexican ports in order to collect customs duties and compensate for the damage suffered. The United States at this time was engulfed in civil war and did not have the opportunity to put the Monroe Doctrine into practice. Spain and England soon withdrew their troops from Mexico, Napoleon III moved an expeditionary force to the capital. The French were defeated at the Battle of Pueblo on May 5, 1862 (this date became a national holiday in Mexico). However, the next year the French strengthened their army, took the capital and, with the support of Mexican conservatives, after a masquerade plebiscite, they placed Maximilian Habsburg on the throne.

The emperor did not repeal the “reform laws,” which alienated the conservatives, and at the same time, despite all attempts, he was unable to reach a compromise with the liberal opposition led by Juarez. In 1866, Napoleon III withdrew troops from Mexico, having more ambitious plans in Europe and also fearing US intervention and the growth of Mexican resistance. The inevitable outcome was not long in coming: in 1867 Maximilian was defeated, captured, convicted and executed.

Dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz.

After Juarez's death in 1872, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada became president. In 1876, General Porfirio Diaz (1830–1915) rebelled, defeated government troops, entered Mexico City and took power into his own hands. In 1877, by decision of Congress, he became president of Mexico. In 1881 he ceded the presidency for one term, but in 1884 he returned to power, which he held for 27 years until his overthrow in 1911.

Diaz began by consolidating his power. To do this, he entered into an agreement with the largest factions of liberals and conservatives, weakened the effect of anti-clerical reforms, thereby attracting the clergy to his side, and subjugated the army elite and local caudillos. Diaz’s favorite slogan “less politics, more management” reduced the country’s public life to bare administration, i.e. implied an intolerant attitude towards any manifestation of dissent and the absolute power of the dictator, who presented himself as the guarantor of stability, justice and prosperity.

Diaz attached particular importance to economics. Under the slogan “order and progress,” he achieved sustainable economic development of society and began to enjoy the support of a growing bureaucracy, large landowners and foreign capital. Profitable concessions encouraged foreign companies to invest in the development of Mexican natural resources. Railways and telegraph lines were built, new banks and enterprises were created. Having become a solvent state, Mexico easily received foreign loans.

This policy was carried out under the influence of a special group in the administrative apparatus of the regime - the so-called. Sentificos ("scholars") who believed that Mexico should be ruled by a Creole elite, with mestizos and Indians relegated to a subordinate role. One of the leaders of the group, José Limantour, served as Minister of Finance and did a lot for the development of the Mexican economy.

Mexican Revolution.

Despite the successes in economic development, the Diaz dictatorship began to cause growing discontent among the broadest sections of the population. The peasantry and representatives of the indigenous population, suffering from the arbitrariness of landowners, theft of communal lands and heavy duties, rebelled under the slogan “Land and Freedom!” The intelligentsia and liberal circles were burdened by the despotic regime of the ruling groups and the power of the church, and sought civil rights and freedoms. Mexico's dependence on foreign capital gave rise to demands for the country's economic and foreign policy independence.

The organized struggle against the Diaz dictatorship began at the turn of 19 and 20. In 1901, opposition circles created the Mexican Liberal Party (MLP), which declared its intention to achieve the restoration of constitutional freedoms. Enrique Flores Magon quickly acquired a leading role in the movement, gradually evolving towards anarchist views. Forced to emigrate abroad, he organized the “Organizational Junta of the MLP” in the United States, which from 1906 led a series of uprisings and strikes in Mexico, seeking to overthrow the dictator and implement social reforms.

Madero's revolt.

Diaz put a match to the keg of gunpowder, giving an interview to American journalist James Krillman, in which he stated that Mexico was ripe for democracy, that he was not going to stand as a candidate in the 1910 elections and was ready to allow opposition parties to participate in the elections. This interview stimulated the political activity of the opposition led by Francisco Madero, the scion of a wealthy landowner.

Madero formed an opposition party, the anti-reelectionists (opponents of re-election). Madero used the experience of his predecessors and formed an opposition party of anti-re-expressionists. In response to Creelman's interview, he published a book called Presidential election 1910, in which he sharply attacked the militaristic dictatorial regime. Madero's vigorous activity brought him fame as the “apostle of Mexican democracy.”

However, Diaz broke his promises, re-nominated himself and was re-elected president. At the same time, he unleashed repression against the opposition and imprisoned Madero. Madero managed to escape to the United States, where he prepared a revolutionary rebellion that began on November 20, 1910. The uprising quickly grew into a revolution, and six months later, on May 21, 1911, the government signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez on the resignation of Diaz and the creation of a provisional government. On the night of May 24-25, Diaz secretly left the capital and departed for Europe.

In November 1911 Madero was elected president. His short 15-month presidency constituted what could be said to be the idealistic phase of the revolution. Well-meaning but politically inexperienced Madero attempted to give Mexico democracy. On this path he faced many obstacles - such as opposition from Congress; attacks by the press for abusing freedom of speech; the government's increasing dependence on the army; the intrigues of US Ambassador Henry Wilson, who supported Madero’s opponents; military mutinies. Madero was attacked by both conservatives, who feared the spread of the revolution, and radical liberals, dissatisfied with the slow progress of reforms. Enormous forces and resources were consumed by the fight against rebellions - for example, with the uprising of Pascual Orozco, the former commander-in-chief of the revolutionary army, or with the peasant guerrilla movement in the south of the country under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata (1883-1919). The final blow was the mutiny of the capital's garrison, which began on February 9, 1913. Street fighting, which lasted for ten days (the so-called “tragic decade”), caused great damage to the city

and caused numerous casualties among civilians. The commander of the government forces, Victoriano Huerta (1845–1916), a secret participant in the conspiracy, arrested Madero and his vice-president José Pino Suarez on February 18. On February 22, they were killed by guards on their way to prison.

Years of war.

The assassination of Madero and the establishment of the military dictatorship of V. Huerta united various factions of revolutionaries. The governor of the state of Cahuila, Venustiano Carranza (1859–1920), proclaimed the “Plan of Guadalupe” on March 26, 1913, in which he called for the restoration of a constitutional government. The fight against Huerta was led by General Alvaro Obregon (1880–1928) and peasant leaders E. Zapata and Francisco (Pancho) Villa (1878–1923). With their combined forces, they overthrew the Huerta regime in July 1914. To a certain extent, this was facilitated by the fact that US President Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize the Huerta government.

However, immediately after the victory, the revolutionaries began a struggle for power. In October 1914, in order to reconcile the warring parties, a revolutionary convention was convened in Aguascalientes with the participation of representatives of Villa and Zapata. Convinced that Carranza cared only about maintaining power, the convention appointed a number of executors to carry out social and economic reforms. The majority of the assembly demanded that Carranza relinquish his title as "leader of the revolution", but he refused to do so and moved his headquarters to Veracruz. Having released a series of revolutions

decrees, Carranza attracted workers and small landowners to his side. Government troops under the command of Obregon in the spring of 1915 defeated Villa's Northern Division in the battles of Zelaya and Leon and took control of the central part of the country. Zapata continued to resist in the south until he was killed in 1919. Villa fought a guerrilla war in the north until the overthrow of Carranza in 1920.

Mexican Revolution and the USA.

From the very beginning, the Mexican Revolution caused concern among the US ruling circles, which had to decide on neutrality, recognition of new governments, the sale of weapons and the protection of the property of US citizens from possible damage. Disillusioned with the Díaz regime, the US maintained a policy of non-intervention during the Madero rebellion and recognized him as president. However, the US ambassador to Mexico, Henry Lane Wilson, constantly intrigued against the new government, supported the rebels, and is morally responsible for failing to prevent Madero's murders.

President Wilson refused to recognize Huerta due to the fact that he came to power illegally by killing a rival. Wilson believed that non-recognition of the dictator would contribute to his overthrow and the implementation of necessary reforms. A direct result of this bystander policy was US military intervention to prevent the delivery of weapons to the Huerta regime. When a German ship loaded with weapons anchored in Veracruz, Wilson ordered the U.S. Navy to capture the city. These actions, which outraged the Mexicans, threatened to lead to war. Only diplomatic mediation by Argentina, Brazil and Chile helped prevent a large-scale conflict.

After the fall of Huerta's dictatorship, Wilson tried to reconcile the warring factions of the revolutionaries. These attempts failed, and after the defeat of Villa's Northern Division, the United States recognized the Carranza government. In March 1916, Villa's detachment crossed the US border and raided the border town of Columbus, New Mexico. In response, Wilson sent a punitive expedition against the Villerists under the command of General Pershing. However, the North Americans met fierce resistance from the Mexicans and, having suffered a series of defeats, in January 1917 began evacuating troops from Mexican territory.

The adoption of the Constitution of 1917 strained relations between the countries, since a number of its articles infringed on the interests of North American companies in Mexico.

Constitution of 1917.

The new Mexican constitution was the main outcome of the revolution. Carranza, who remained victorious, gave the force of law to the reforms promised in his revolutionary decrees. The text of the document basically repeated the provisions of the constitution of 1857, but added three fundamentally important articles to them. Article three provided for the introduction of universal free primary education; Article 27 declared all lands, waters and mineral resources on Mexican territory to be national property, and also declared the need for the division of large latifundia and established the principles and procedure for carrying out agrarian reform; Article 123 was an extensive labor code.

Reconstruction period.

Carranza had the foresight to introduce a provision on agrarian reform into the constitution, although he himself held more conservative views on this issue. In foreign policy, Carranza was guided by some of the principles put forward earlier, and maintained Mexico's neutrality in the First World War. On the eve of the 1920 elections, an uprising began in the state of Sonora under the leadership of generals Obregon, Adolfo de la Huerta and Plutarco Elias Calles (1877–1945). The rebels moved troops to the capital; Carranza tried to escape, but was captured and shot. For the next 14 years, Mexico was ruled by Obregón and Calles: they established peace in the country and began to implement some reforms.

Obregón was the first president to begin to implement the ideals of the revolution. He distributed 1.1 million hectares of land among peasants and supported the labor movement. The Minister of Education, José Vasconcelos, launched a broad educational program in the countryside and contributed to the cultural flowering of Mexico in the 1920s, called the “Mexican Renaissance.”

Calles became president in 1924 and effectively remained in power for ten years. He continued the policy of patronage of the labor movement and the distribution of lands of large latifundia. At the same time, many small family farms were created, which were trained in modern agricultural technologies. Calles accelerated the implementation of the program for the construction of rural schools, launched an irrigation campaign, stimulated the construction of roads, the development of industry and finance.

The internal political situation in Mexico during these years was characterized by instability, which was aggravated by contradictions with the United States. Any change of government was accompanied by riots - in 1923–1924, 1927 and 1929. The implementation of the anti-clerical program stated in the constitution caused a sharp deterioration in relations between the state and the church. The refusal of the clergy to comply with the provisions of the constitution led to the closure of church schools, to which the church responded by temporarily stopping religious worship in churches from August 1, 1926. For three years, from 1926 to 1929, the so-called fire burned in Mexico. Cristeros uprising. Church supporters, mostly peasants, killed government emissaries and burned secular schools. The uprising was suppressed by government troops.

There were constant diplomatic conflicts with the United States related to American oil companies in Mexico. The Bucarelli Agreement, developed in 1923 by a joint diplomatic commission, resolved a number of the most pressing problems and led to recognition of the Obregón government by the United States.

In violation of previously reached agreements, the Calles government in 1925 began to prepare a law to implement Article 27 of the 1917 Constitution, concerning the property and land holdings of American companies. This again strained relations between Mexico and the United States. Things were heading towards a severance of diplomatic relations, if not to armed intervention, which the Mexicans considered inevitable. The situation eased in 1927, when the skilled diplomat Dwight Morrow became US ambassador to Mexico. Following the course of the good neighbor policy proclaimed by Roosevelt, he was able to find a compromise in solving the most pressing problems.

Obregón's assassination in July 1928 during the election campaign created a political vacuum that only Calles could fill, and from 1928 to 1934 he effectively ruled the country behind three successive presidents. In general, these were years of conservatism, corruption, economic stagnation and disappointment. Despite everything, 1929 became a record year for the amount of land distributed among peasants; in the same year, the state reached an agreement with the church, and the National Revolutionary Party was created, renamed in 1946 to the Institutional Revolutionary Party, and in 1931 the government adopted a new labor code.

Continuation of the revolution.

In 1934, during the election of a new president for a six-year term, Calles supported the candidacy of Lazaro Cardenas (1895–1970). During the election campaign, Cardenas reiterated his commitment to the ideals of the revolution, traveled all over the country and directly communicated with ordinary people. The new president gradually took full power into his own hands and forced Calles to leave Mexico.

Cárdenas's progressive government launched a broad reform campaign. The army and the ruling party were reorganized. Cardenas dramatically accelerated agrarian reform and distributed more land to peasants than previous presidents combined. By 1940, ejidos (collective peasant farms) occupied more than half of all arable land in Mexico. The trade union movement was revived; A broad educational program was carried out, which included intensive work among the Indian population. The reform movement reached its peak in 1938, when Cardenas nationalized the property of North American and British oil companies.

1990s and early 2000s.

By 1940, Cardenas came to the conclusion that the country needed a respite in order to consolidate the transformation. Therefore, in the presidential elections, he supported the candidacy of General Manuel Avilo Camacho (1897–1955), a man of moderate conservative views. The new president favored the church, patronized private land ownership and put Fidel Velázquez at the head of the trade union movement, who largely shared his views. In 1942, he signed a number of agreements with the United States and settled the conflict that arose in 1938 in connection with the nationalization of the oil industry. In response, the United States pledged to provide financial assistance in stabilizing the Mexican peso, building roads and industrializing the country.

The Second World War had a significant impact on the development of the country. Mexico became an ally of the anti-Hitler coalition and declared war on the Axis countries. She participated in the work of the guard service, supplied the Allies with raw materials and labor, and three hundred Mexican pilots served at air bases in the Philippine Islands and later in Taiwan. Financial and technological assistance from the United States allowed Mexico to modernize its railroads and industry. Mexico was forced to develop its own production partly because it lost European imports due to the war. The war raised world prices, created favorable conditions for trade, and allowed Mexico to accumulate foreign exchange reserves, which were used for the needs of industrialization. Finally, the war brought Mexico onto the stage of world politics, helped it get rid of its provincialism complex, and increased the country's international prestige.

From 1946 to 1952, Mexico was ruled by Miguel Aleman, the first civilian president since Madero. Under him, the political influence of big capital increased, agreements were signed with the church and with foreign investors, and friendly relations with the United States were consolidated. The Alemán government focused its main efforts on implementing programs of industrialization, regional industrial development, irrigation, and the introduction of modern agricultural technologies. It was a period of economic growth, grandiose public projects, and large-scale construction.

Aleman's excessive projects and promises and the ensuing economic crisis created considerable difficulties for President Adolfo Ruiz Cortines (1952–1958). However, the president managed to restore the pace of development of the Mexican economy and curb corruption. He focused on modernizing ports and maritime transport. Under him, the distribution of land to peasants was resumed, and social assistance to workers was expanded.

Cortines' policy was continued by Adolfo López Mateos (1958–1964). He widely promoted the concept of Mexican identity at home and abroad, curbed extremism, undertook tax reform, nationalized the energy and film industries, accelerated land reform and launched an 11-year program to develop rural education.

Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, president from 1964–1970, followed a moderate course, maneuvering between conservative and reformist tendencies both in the country and in the ruling party. During his reign, production developed at an extremely rapid pace with an annual increase in the gross national product of 6.5%. Per capita income has increased sharply. However, the inadequate distribution of material wealth did not make it possible to effectively solve problems in the field of education and social security of a rapidly growing population. In 1967, the largest one-time distribution of land in the history of Mexico was carried out - 1 million hectares. At the same time, behind the façade of economic success, social tension grew, which resulted in student unrest in the summer and autumn of 1968. The shooting of a peaceful student demonstration on the Square of Three Cultures on October 2, 1968, which resulted in hundreds of victims, formed a glaring contrast with the festivities marking the opening of the Olympic Games that took place in the same month. In 1969, the first metro lines were opened in Mexico City. In August 1970, Díaz Ordaz settled all border disputes between the two countries with US President Richard Nixon.

Luis Echeverría Alvarez was elected president in 1970. In 1973, his government passed a law strictly controlling foreign investment in Mexico. Echeverría strengthened Mexico's ties with other Latin American countries, primarily Cuba, Peru and Chile. In 1972, Mexico established diplomatic relations with China.

The election of José López Portillo (1976–1982) to the presidency coincided with the discovery of large oil fields in the states of Chiapas and Tabasco and offshore the Gulf of Campeche. Between 1976 and 1982 Mexico tripled its oil production and became one of the leading oil-producing countries. Rising oil prices brought enormous profits to the country, to which were added large loans, mainly from US banks, guaranteed by revenues from oil sales.

The Mexican oil boom ended in 1981 with falling oil prices and declining oil sales. By the summer of 1982, the country could no longer make the necessary payments on foreign loans. At the same time, wealthy Mexicans were exporting huge amounts of currency outside the country, draining foreign exchange reserves needed for imports. In this situation, Lopez Portillo took a number of emergency measures. He nationalized the banks and imposed strict controls on their external operations, obtained long-term loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the lending banks, carried out a 75 percent devaluation of the Mexican peso, and sharply reduced the cost of government and imports. As a result, Mexico entered a period of economic depression.

In December 1982, López Portillo was replaced as president by PRI candidate Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado. He launched a crackdown on corruption and brought criminal charges against two of the most corrupt senior officials of the previous administration. At the same time, he did not touch either Lopez Portillo himself, or the bureaucratic apparatus of the IPR and the trade union leaders associated with him. In accordance with IMF recommendations, de la Madrid and his budget planning minister, Carlos Salinas de Gortari, carried out the tight fiscal policies initiated by the previous president.

In the presidential elections of 1988, intense rivalry developed between Carlos Salinas de Gortari and Cuauhtemoc Cardenas, who a year earlier had left the PRI, creating the National Democratic Front. Despite the disputed election results, Salinas was proclaimed president. In order to mitigate the consequences of the financial crisis, he developed a program to protect the poor, called the National Solidarity Program. In particular, it provided for cooperation between the central government and representatives of local authorities, who themselves determined priorities in the economic development of their territories. Salinas generously subsidized this program ($1.3 billion by 1993).

Salinas pursued a policy of rapprochement with the Roman Catholic Church, which had long been considered an enemy of the revolution. He invited church leaders to his presidential inauguration, restored relations with the Vatican, softened the anticlerical provisions of the constitution, and invited Pope John Paul II to participate in the opening of a charitable project in the slums of Mexico City. All these symbolic gestures were designed to win over Mexican Catholics, who made up the vast majority of the country's population.

In November 1993, Mexico and the United States signed a free trade agreement (NAFTA). The agreement was expected to revitalize the Mexican economy and create more jobs for Mexicans. At the end of the year, Salinas announced PRI candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio as his presidential successor. Mexico has been invited to join member countries of the Asia-Pacific Economic Forum (APEC), an informal organization comprising the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and 11 Asian countries that holds annual advisory councils on trade issues.

In 1992, the ruling PRI managed, in a bitter struggle with the conservative National Action Party and the left PDR, created by C. Cardenas, to win the majority of gubernatorial posts. The opposition managed to defeat only Chihuahua and Guanajuato. She accused the ruling party of rigging the vote. Under public pressure, Congress adopted constitutional amendments in August 1993 that democratized the electoral system.

After 14 months of negotiations, the US and Mexican governments signed a free trade agreement. On January 1, 1994, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) came into force. In accordance with it, Mexico pledged to liberalize its market for North American financial transactions, open access to firms from the United States and Canada to its telecommunications, remove restrictions on the activities of joint ventures, etc. The greatest indignation of the peasants was caused by the fact that the Mexican authorities, contrary to the previous provisions of the constitution, recognized the possibility of alienation, purchase and division of communal lands. On January 1, 1994, the military-political organization Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), based on the Indian population of the state of Chiapas, raised an uprising in the state, demanding recognition of land rights, opportunities for the development of Indian culture, social and economic progress of the region, as well as the implementation of broad democratization. EZLN forces occupied a number of settlements, but were pushed back by government forces. At least 145 people died. Human rights activists blamed the army for numerous executions and arrests. Subsequently, active hostilities in the state ceased and developed into a kind of “low-intensity war.”

The opposition public demanded a political settlement of the conflict, but negotiations on this topic, despite some progress, generally proved to be ineffective.

On the eve of the 1994 general elections, a constitutional amendment was adopted that expanded the possibilities of public control over the course of elections. The opposition was allowed access to the media. More equal opportunities for campaign financing were ensured. Disagreements within Mexico's ruling circles grew. In March 1994, the PRI presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio was assassinated (later, in August of the same year, the PRI general secretary was assassinated). President Salinas appointed economist Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon as the new candidate. For the first time, televised debates were held between the main contenders for the presidency. In July 1994, Zedillo was elected head of state, receiving 50.2% of the vote; PNM candidate Diego Fernandez de Cevallos received almost 27% of the votes, C. Cardenas from the PDR received over 17%. The PRI managed to maintain a significant majority in both houses of Congress.

Having assumed the presidency, Zedillo was faced with an acute monetary and financial crisis, a fall in the value of the Mexican peso and capital flight from the country. At the beginning of 1995, an economic recession followed; more than 250 thousand people lost their jobs (in total, 2.4 million jobs were lost in the first half of 1995). The government devalued the national currency, introduced price controls, froze wages and announced a new privatization program. The United States provided Mexico with assistance in the amount of $18 billion and loan guarantees worth $20 billion, the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development - by $28 billion. Then the authorities increased the value added tax, prices for fuel and electricity, and reduced government expenses and limited wage growth. As a result, the Zedillo government managed to reduce inflation, overcome the trade deficit, and in 1996, achieve growth in GNP and begin to repay loan debts. It has promised to allocate significant funds to fight poverty. In 1999, the IMF provided Mexico with a 17-month loan of more than $4 billion, which was the precondition for further international loans of almost $20 billion.

Regarding the crisis in Chiapas, Zedillo promised to guarantee the rights of the Indians and help develop the region, but refused to implement reforms on a national scale, especially land reforms.

The ruling PRI continued to be rocked by political scandals. Relatives of former President Salinas were accused of involvement in the murder of the PRI general secretary, corruption, embezzlement and abuses during privatization and received multi-year prison sentences. A number of high-ranking police officers and army officers were put on trial for connections with the drug mafia.

In the parliamentary and local elections in July 1997, the PRI lost its majority in the Chamber of Deputies for the first time. The opposition PDR and MHP won several more seats than the ruling party. The first direct elections for the mayor of the capital were won by the leader of the PRD, C. Cardenas, who collected more than 47% of the votes, and the PND won the gubernatorial elections in the states of Nuevo Leon and Queretaro. Thus, the PRI retained power in 25 states, and the PAP in 6. The PRI also lost votes in the municipal elections.

In subsequent years, the PRI's power system continued to erode, and the party lost several more gubernatorial posts. In 1999, a coalition of the PDR and the leftist Labor Party won the gubernatorial elections in Baja California Sur; The opposition also won in Nayarit. As a result, the PRI retained power in only 21 states. The fall in the government's popularity was also contributed to by the violent suppression of a university strike in 2000. To attract the sympathy of voters, the party decided to abolish the practice of appointing a presidential candidate by presidential decree and introduce a system of internal party elections.

Mexico in the 21st century

The general elections in 2000 radically changed the political situation in the country. The PRI lost power for the first time in Mexico. Its presidential candidate Francisco Labastida received only 36.1% of the votes, losing to the MHP-Greens bloc candidate Vicente Fox, who received 42.5% of the votes. C. Cárdenas, nominated by the bloc of PDR, PT and a number of small left parties, won 16.6%, Gilberto Rincón (Social Democracy Party) - 1.6%, Manuel Camacho (Democratic Center Party) - 0.6% and Porfirio Muñoz from the Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution - 0.4%. However, the coalition that came to power failed to obtain an absolute majority of seats in Congress.

The PRI again lost the election for mayor of the capital and lost the post of governor of Chiapas.

The President of Mexico since 2000 has been Vicente Fox Quesada. He was born in 1942, studied management in Mexico City and Harvard University, then worked for the Coca-Cola concern, where he was responsible for work in Central America, founded an agricultural company and his own factory. In 1987 he joined the conservative National Action Party. In 1988, Fox was elected to Congress, and in 1995 he won the gubernatorial elections in the state of Guanajuato.

Upon assuming the presidency, Vicente Fox promised to implement fundamental changes. But by 2003, he had failed to achieve the implementation of his program and promises: to privatize the energy sector, agree to liberalize the migration of Mexicans to the United States, create 1 million new jobs and resolve the conflict in Chiapas. The devastation of the peasantry, suffering from the effects of NAFTA, continued. As a result, during the 2003 parliamentary elections, the ruling PAP lost a quarter of the votes and about 70 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and the PRI again came out on top.

On July 10, 2006, the next presidential elections were held in Mexico. The candidate from the ruling National Action Party, Felipe Calderon, won, receiving 35.88% of the vote. 35.31% of voters voted for his main rival, the leader of the opposition Party of the Democratic Revolution (PDR), Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador.

On December 1, 2006, Felipe Calderona took office. He began a decisive fight against drug crime. Mexico's largest drug cartels are Los Zetas, which controls the eastern part of the country, and Sinaloa, which operates in the western part. To capture the leaders of the criminal world, the Mexican army carried out special operations that led to some success. Thus, in 2011, a number of leaders and leading figures of the Los Zetas cartel were detained, but it is premature to talk about victory over it.

Despite the active intervention of the army, crime in the country has increased, although it has stabilized somewhat. A wave of bloodshed swept across the country. During the six years of Calderon's presidency, tens of thousands of people died during this struggle. At the same time, we must not forget that the creation of an anti-terrorism and anti-drug system in Mexico is carried out by the security agencies of the United States. Both Vicente Fox and then Felipe Calderon adhered and continue to adhere to a pro-American course on almost all fundamental issues of domestic and foreign policy.

Mexican ruling circles believed that such a strategic and tactical course towards the United States would ensure the country's rise to the level of highly developed states and solve the problems of socio-economic development. However, rapprochement with its northern neighbors was accompanied by an aggravation of the domestic political situation, and the global financial crisis of 2008–2009 aggravated Mexico’s difficult position in the global economy.

Per capita income is about three times lower than in the United States; income distribution remains highly uneven.

Mexico's new president, Enrique Peña Nieto, the Institutional Revolutionary Party candidate elected to office on July 1, 2012 (38.21% of the vote), will also likely pursue pro-American policies. The official assumption of office took place on December 1, 2012.

The representative of the Party of Democratic Revolution (PDR), Andrés Manuel López Obrador, took second place with 31.59% of the vote. Obrador did not recognize the election results, considering them unfair. This is not the first time that a candidate from the Party of Democratic Revolution has not recognized the results of the vote: the 2006 presidential elections ended with a campaign launched after the end by López Obrador, who demanded a recount. The left-wing candidate claimed that it was he, and not Felipe Calderon, who became president, who actually won the election and that the election results were the result of fraud, fraud and bribery. The politician opposes the course of Mexican liberals towards military cooperation with the United States, insisting on the priority of trade and economic relations. He is going to cancel those agreements between Calderon and the US administration, which he considers humiliating to national sovereignty.

According to official data, over the past less than 6 years, more than 47.5 thousand people have died in the country in wars with the drug mafia; unofficial sources cite a much higher figure. To combat organized crime, Enrique Peña Nieto intends to significantly increase spending on the creation of new units in law enforcement agencies, in particular the National Gendarmerie, following the example of Italy, France and Colombia. Its number will be 40 thousand people. In addition, the staff of the Mexican federal police, created specifically to combat the drug mafia, will be increased by another 35 thousand people.

Enrique Peña Nieto is going to carry out reforms in the energy industry and modernize the country's oil industry with the involvement of private capital.

Literature:

Volsky A. History of the Mexican Revolutions. M. – L., 1928
Vaillant J. Aztec history. M., 1949
Parks G. History of Mexico. M., 1949
Garza M. Notes on Higher Education in Mexico. – Bulletin of Higher School, 1958, No. 5
Essays on the modern and contemporary history of Mexico. 1810–1945. M., 1960
Fried N. Mexico graphics. M., 1960
Mashbits Ya.G. Mexico. M., 1961
Kinzhalov R.V. Art of Ancient Mexico. M., 1962
Zhadova L. Monumental painting of Mexico. M., 1965
Simakov Yu. Mexico Olympic. M., 1967
Mexico. Policy. Economy. Culture. M., 1968
Lavretsky I. Juarez. M., 1969
Klesmet O.G. Mexico. M., 1969
Kuteishchikova V.N. Mexican novel. M., 1971
Alperovich M.S. Birth of the Mexican State. M., 1972
Gulyaev V.I. . Idols are hiding in the jungle. M., 1972
Lavrov N.M. Mexican Revolution 1910–1917. M., 1972
Kirichenko E.I. Three centuries of Latin American art. M., 1972
Musical culture of Latin American countries. M., 1974
Pichugin P.A. Mexican song. M., 1977
Portillo G.L. Physical education and sports in Mexico. – Theory and practice of physical culture, 1978, No. 8
Gulyaev V.I. . Mayan city-states. M., 1979
Bassols Batalha A. Economic geography of Mexico. M., 1981
Soviet-Mexican relations. 1917–1980. Sat. documents. M., 1981
Maksimenko L.N. Mexico: Socio-Economic Development Issues. M., 1983
Mexico: trends in economic and socio-political development. M., 1983
Pichugin P.A. Corridos of the Mexican Revolution. M., 1984.
History of Latin American Literatures, vol. 1., M., 1985; t. 2, M., 1988; vol. 3, M., 1994
Lapishev E.G. Mexico at the turn of the two centuries. M., 1990
Kozlova E.A. The formation of Mexican painting of the 16th–18th centuries. M., 1996
Essays on the history of Latin American art. M., 1997
Yakovlev P. Mexico: The Complex Challenges of a Rising Power. Internet portal PERSPECTIVES: http://www.perspektivy.info/



Mexico (officially the United Mexican States) is a country in North America, the northernmost country in Latin America. Public administration in Mexico is completely similar to public administration in the United States. The capital of Mexico is Mexico City.

The official currency of Mexico is the Mexican peso. It can be obtained at any exchange office or ATM.

The official language is Spanish, spoken by 96% of the population. The remaining 4% speak Indian languages. English is spoken only in the capital, and not everyone speaks it. Therefore, when going to Mexico (especially to small cities), I advise you to take care of the language in advance and learn a few basic phrases that will allow you not to go hungry on your trip.

Tourists should pay special attention to safety in this country. The central states are considered the least dangerous. The most dangerous states, where I would not advise you to go, are the northern ones, bordering the USA - Tijuana, Loredo, Ciudad Juarez. The crime situation in the country began to increase in 2006, when conflicts between unofficial drug trafficking organizations intensified. The press dubbed this process “the drug war in Mexico.” When traveling around Mexico, it is not recommended to use unofficial taxis and wear expensive jewelry when going out for a walk. Also, tourists are advised to move only along the central streets, the most visited ones, and return to the hotel after midnight. The local population is quite friendly towards tourists. But you should be wary of dark streets.

The nature of Mexico is very diverse. In one country you will find volcanoes, snow-capped mountains, tropical resorts with white sand and blue ocean, waterfalls, caves filled with stalactites and stalagnites and much more. Of particular interest are the underground decks - cenotes. This is a paradise for divers. Cenotes are found only on the island of Yucatan. There are more than 6,000 of them here. Some cenotes are equipped for bathing tourists, others are not explored at all. The water in the cenotes is crystal clear. The most popular of them are Ik-Kil (located 3 km from Chichen Itza), Ix-Canche, cenotes Sachi, Shkeken (6.5 km from Valladoltda).

Mexico is not only a country with beautiful nature. Do not forget that a huge Indian heritage is concentrated here. When traveling to Mexico, take a couple of days to visit the pyramids. The country has several historical zones in which entire pyramid complexes are located. One of these zones is located near the capital of Mexico City - Teotihucan. Here you will get acquainted with the majestic buildings of the Incas and plunge into the mysterious city founded before our era. Mexico is home to the second largest pyramid in the world, the Pyramids of Cholula. It is almost 1.5 kilometers in diameter! It was partially excavated. Almost the entire pyramid is covered with earth; on its top there is a Catholic church, built by the Spaniards during the conquest of the country. Archaeologists decided not to excavate the entire pyramid, so as not to destroy the historical temple and part of the city that was already built on it. This creation is worth a look!

Temazcal is another attraction of Mexico. These are Indian dry baths. They are small clay houses, round in shape. Inside, in the center of the house, there is usually a stone of volcanic origin, which produces steam. These baths are considered healing. Shamans often visited them during their rituals.

Mexico Holidays

Corrida (bullfight) . It is especially popular in northern Mexico and Veracruz. If you want to go to a bullfight, I advise you to visit the country between November and April.

Mariachi performances – take place everywhere all year round. Mariachis are small musical groups dressed in national costumes. They usually perform traditional Mexican or country music. They can be found in city squares, on large avenues or in cafes. Often such groups are ordered for a wedding or birthday. If desired, they can order their favorite song for a fee. Mariachi can be found not only in Mexico, but also in other regions of Latin America.

The day of the Dead - perhaps the most extraordinary, but at the same time the brightest and most widely celebrated holiday in the country. It is celebrated on the first two days of November. On this day, Mexicans remember all the dead. According to legend, on this day the souls of the dead visit the house. To receive them properly, people decorate the house with photographs of the deceased, flowers, and candles. On this day, you can find skeleton statues and sugar skulls in stores. It is a joyful holiday, often accompanied by carnivals.

Carnivals – in different regions of Mexico they take place at different times, from February to March. People dress up in different costumes, put on masks, which, according to legend, are supposed to scare away bad spirits, and parade through the streets of the city, while dancing.

Mexican cuisine

Mexicans are a very passionate people. They usually use hot spices, chili peppers or sauces in their dishes. If you are not a fan of spicy food, you should immediately say “no picanto” when buying food. Even if a dish is declared as ordinary in its spiciness, it will definitely have chili pepper. Pepper is everywhere: in soups, in corn, in porridges. Mexican cuisine and drinks are very diverse and very different from what our stomach is accustomed to. It's worth trying a little of everything.

National dishes of Mexico:

Tortilla - a usually thin corn tortilla that is eaten instead of bread in Mexico. Meat is often wrapped in it (it turns out another dish - burrito ) or vegetables.

Quesadilla – flatbread with melted cheese.

Fajita – beef, grilled with slices of tomatoes, peppers and onions.

Arraccheru – beef with rice or beans.

Tamale - pies made of corn flour stuffed with meat, cheese, pepper, wrapped in corn leaves.

Corn cobs - sold everywhere. Corn comes in three varieties: yellow, white and black. Typically, the corn is boiled and, at the buyer's request, rubbed with salt, lime, mayonnaise, pepper or sprinkled with cheese. It turns out very tasty!

Beverages:

Tequila, pulque, mezcal, beer, chelada (beer with salt and lime juice) and michelada (beer with salt, lime and pepper).

Also, one of the delicacies for Mexicans are dried grasshoppers. They are usually consumed with beer, before pouring plenty of lime juice over them. I’ll be honest, the taste is not for everyone, but it’s worth a try.

Mexico is a country with an interesting culture and flavor. You won't have time to get bored here. What exactly to see in Mexico and where to go – read further in this section.