Home Questions Egp Macedonia. Republic of Macedonia I Geographical position

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Egp Macedonia. Republic of Macedonia I Geographical position

The Republic of Macedonia gained independence in September 1991. Its economy was the least developed compared to other former Yugoslav republics. In 1990-1993, a privatization program was carried out in Macedonia. In subsequent years, the Government of Macedonia carried out a number of reforms in the financial sector. The Republic of Macedonia maintains macroeconomic stability amid low inflation, but lags behind in terms of attracting foreign investment and job creation.

A number of factors (impossibility to conduct free trade with the former Yugoslav republics; embargo imposed by Greece; UN sanctions against Yugoslavia; lack of infrastructure) hindered the economic growth of Macedonia until 1996. Economic growth began in Macedonia in 1996. GDP growth was observed until 2000.

In 2001, due to the interethnic conflict that occurred in Macedonia, economic growth fell to 4.5%. The recession in the economy was due to periodic border closures, a decrease in trade relations with other countries, an increase in state budget spending on state security, and the refusal of investors to invest in a country with an unstable political situation. In 2002, economic growth was observed at the level of 0.3%, and in 2003 - 2.8%. For the period from 2003 to 2006, the average economic growth rate was 4%, for 2007-2008 - 5%.

In 2009, the country's GDP was estimated at $9.238 billion, and economic growth fell to -1.8%. Gross domestic product by sectors amounted to: agriculture - 12.1% of GDP, industry - 21.5%, services - 58.4%.

State budget revenues in 2009 amounted to $2.914 billion, expenditures - $3.161 billion. The state debt of Macedonia increased in 2009 compared to 2008 by 3.7% and amounted to 32.4% of GDP. As of September 31, 2009, the country's external debt reached $5.458 billion, which is $0.8 billion more than last year.

Macedonian industry

The growth of industrial production in Macedonia in 2009 fell sharply to -7.7%. The following leading industries are distinguished in the country: tobacco, wine-making, textile. In addition, there is a mining industry, metallurgical industry, chemical industry, metalworking, electrical equipment, machine tools are produced.

The country has insignificant reserves of ore and non-metallic minerals: iron, lead-zinc, nickel, copper and manganese ore, chromite, magnesite, antimony, arsenic, sulfur, gold, brown coal, feldspar, dolomite, gypsum.

Metallurgical industry. Iron and steel production accounts for 7% of GDP. Main products: cold and hot rolled steel, aluminum profiles and strip, alloy steel, pipes, ferronickel, zinc, copper, gold and silver.

Metalworking and electrical equipment. Represented by a variety of products: electrical appliances, transformers, batteries. Equipment for the processing of metals, wood and plastic is produced.

Chemical industry. It accounts for 10% of the total industrial production. There are capacities for basic chemical production, synthetic fiber, PVC, solvents, detergents, fertilizers, etc. Pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries are also developed. The chemical industry in Macedonia is based mainly on imported raw materials. A large chemical plant is located in Skopje. The development of the chemical industry is facilitated by foreign investment (the United States - in the pharmaceutical industry, Turkey - in the production of fuels and lubricants and plastics, Italy - in the production of technical glass). There is a pulp and paper industry.

Textile industry. It employs 27% of the working population. Main production: cotton fiber and fabrics, woolen yarn and finished woolen products. Most enterprises carry out orders for tailoring of ready-made clothes for the USA and European countries. In the last 3 years alone, 425 new small and medium-sized enterprises have opened in the sector. The main centers of the textile industry are Tetovo (production of woolen fabrics), Shtip (cotton mill), Veles (silk weaving mill). They mainly produce ready-made, including knitted, clothes, bedspreads, bed linen, artificial fur, blankets, cotton threads, wool yarn, fabrics, and carpets. The leather and leather-footwear industry works mainly on imported raw materials and is largely developed thanks to the investments of Italian and Italian-American companies.

Construction and building materials. This sector works on domestic raw materials and produces ceramics, asbestos, cement, gypsum and gypsum products. The country has a well-developed construction industry. The construction services of Macedonian workers are widely used in Germany, Eastern Europe and the Middle East. The enterprises of the industry "Concrete", "Mavrovo", "Pelagonia" are widely known in Russia and the republics of the former USSR. The annual volume in construction is 400 million dollars, including 40-50 million dollars from the implementation of projects abroad.

Food and beverage industry. Well-developed industries producing canned food, wine and beer. The annual production of grapes reaches 200-300 thousand tons. There are 16 wine factories in the country with a total volume of 220 million liters of wine per year.

Agriculture in Macedonia

Good climatic conditions make it possible to grow grain crops (wheat, corn, rice), industrial crops (tobacco, sunflower, cotton, poppy), vegetables and fruits in the country. Viticulture and winemaking are developed in Macedonia.

Pasture animal husbandry is developed in the mountainous regions. The population breeds sheep, goats, cattle, pigs. The country also has poultry and beekeeping. The inhabitants of the lake districts are engaged in fishing. The leading sectors in the agriculture of the Republic of Macedonia are: tobacco growing, vegetable growing, fruit growing, sheep breeding.

The share of agriculture in GDP is 20%. Agricultural land is 1.3 million hectares, of which 43% is arable land, 4% is under vineyards and vegetable crops. The remaining 53% of the lands are pastures and meadows. About 80% of the land is privately owned. Climatic conditions allow growing grapes, early vegetables, fruits, as well as developing animal husbandry. There are a large number of food and beverage industries. The total export potential of agriculture reaches 180-230 million dollars per year, which is 20% of Macedonia's exports.

Foreign trade of Macedonia

The volume of exports in 2009 was estimated at 2.687 billion US dollars. The country exports food, tobacco products, textiles, various industrial products, iron and steel. Main export partners: Germany, Italy, Bulgaria, Croatia and Greece.

The volume of imports in 2009 reached 4.844 billion US dollars. Macedonia imports machinery and equipment, chemical products, fuel and foodstuffs. Main import partners: Greece, Germany, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Italy, Turkey, Hungary.

Transport and energy in Macedonia

As you know, Macedonia has a sufficient network of highways and a certain number of railways. The length of railways is 699 km (234 km are electrified), the length of roads is 4,723 km (including 4,113 km with hard surface). The country has 14 airports (including 10 paved), including international airports in Skopje and Ohrid.

The main highway is laid in parallel with the North-South railway connecting Serbia and Montenegro with Greece, the so-called. "Corridor 10". Construction is underway on Corridor 8, a highway that will connect Macedonia with Albania in the west and Bulgaria in the east. The length of the railway network is 900 km. The main north-south direction from Belgrade to the port of Thessaloniki (Greece) passes through Skopje. There are two international airfields in Macedonia - in Skopje and Ohrid.

Telecommunications are also well developed in Macedonia. The country has a stable connection via optical cable with the main cities of Europe. The Macedonian Telecommunications enterprise was privatized by the Hungarian Matav - 51% of the shares. There are two mobile networks, which are used by 9% of the population.

Macedonia can achieve self-sufficiency in the electricity sector as well. Currently, the country meets its needs by 80%. The installed capacity is 1443.8 MW, of which 1010 MW are thermal power plants and 443.8 MW are hydroelectric power plants. Most of the energy facilities were created with the assistance of the former USSR.

Joint-Stock Company "Electric Economy of Macedonia" is a state-owned enterprise for the production, transmission and distribution of electricity. It includes 3 TPPs, 7 HPPs, 22 small HPPs. The largest thermal power plant "Bitola" produces 70% of all heat and electricity in the country. TPP "Negotino" is in good condition. It runs on fuel oil, therefore it is a reserve power due to the high cost of energy production. The government plans to privatize Macedonian Electricity by the end of 2006. The necessary documents are being prepared.

The Skopje-Thessaloniki oil pipeline operates in the country. Its throughput capacity is up to 2.5 million tons of oil per year. This is precisely the production capacity of the Skopsky oil refinery "OKTA", built with the assistance of the USSR (currently privatized by the Greek company "Helenik Petroleum").

A gas pipeline is under expansion, through which Russian natural gas is supplied to Macedonia through the territory of Bulgaria. The design capacity of the gas transmission system is 800 million cubic meters. Only 10% used. Subject to the implementation of the project for the development of the gas transmission network of Macedonia and neighboring countries, gas could be supplied to Albania, the southern regions of Serbia, including Kosovo, and also to northern Greece.

Source - http://www.makedonya.ru/
http://ru.wikipedia.org/

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Republic of Macedonia Vakurina Daria, GBOU No. 104 of St. Petersburg. Teacher Shizhenskaya N. N

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Capital: Skopje Form of government: parliamentary republic structure: Legislative Assembly has great powers Currency: Dinar Head of State: President George Ivanov, Prime Minister Emil Dimitriev GDP (nominal) 7.5 billion (2007) GDP PPP 17.35 billion Rank in GDP PPP 118 GDP growth 3, 2% GDP per capita at PPP 8675 GDP by sector Agriculture: 11.9% Industry: 28.2% Services: 59.9%

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Heads of State Gheorghe Ivanov - Macedonian statesman and politician, President of the Republic of Macedonia since May 12, 2009. Emil Dimitriev - Macedonian politician, Prime Minister of the Republic of Macedonia since January 18, 2016.

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Business card of the country. The flag of the Republic of Macedonia is a red panel with the image of a yellow sun with eight divergent rays. The flag represents the "new sun of freedom" (Maced. novo sun na slobodata), sung in the national anthem of Macedonia. The coat of arms represents only a landscape characteristic and does not contain any historical symbols of Macedonia. The coat of arms depicts Mount Korab, water (symbolizes the rivers) and the sun, the coat of arms is framed by the main crops grown in Macedonia (wheat, poppy, tobacco and cotton). At the bottom is a ribbon embroidered with folk ornaments.

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Anthem of the Republic of Macedonia Today a new sun of freedom is born over Macedonia, Macedonians are fighting for their rights! Macedonians fight for their rights! From now on, the flag of the Krushevo Republic will fly! Gotse Delchev, Pitu Guli, Dame Gruev, Sandansky! Gotse Delchev, Pitu Guli, Dame Gruev, Sandansky! Macedonian forests loudly sing new songs, new news! Macedonia is free, Free lives! Macedonia is free, Free lives! Denes over Macedonia is now a new sun on the settlement! Makedontsy borat for your truths! Makedontsy borat for your truths! One now knows all over the Krushevskata republic! Gotse Delchev, Pitu Guli, Dame Gruev, Sandanski! Gotse Delchev, Pitu Guli, Dame Gruev, Sandanski! Burn noisily peat new songs, new springs! Macedonia is free, live free! Macedonia is free, live free!

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Organizations International Monetary Fund (since 1992) CTO (since 1993) EBRD (since 1993) Central European Initiative (since 1993) Council of Europe (since 1995) OSCE (since 1995) SECI (since 1996) WTO (since 2003) CEFTA (since 2006) La Francophonie (since 2001) UN - United Nations (1993).

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EGP Located in the southeast of Europe (Balkan Peninsula) Area - 25.3 thousand km ^ 2 (145th in the world) Administrative division: 84 communities and the city of Skopje (capital) Borders: in the north with Kosovo and Serbia, in the west - with Albania, in the south with Greece, in the east with Bulgaria.

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Export - partners: Serbia and Montenegro - 20.4% Germany - 15.4% Greece - 12.4% Bulgaria - 10.1% Italy - 8.8% Croatia -6.5% Export: $ 3971 million Export - goods: - food products - drinks - tobacco products - textiles -various finished products -iron and steel Imports: $ 6523 million Imports - goods: -machinery and equipment -cars -chemicals -fuels -foodstuffs Imports - partners: Germany-13.3% Greece-12.4% Bulgaria-9.9% Serbia and Montenegro -6.9% Italy-6.3% Turkey-5.6% Export and Import

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Population According to the 2002 census, the total population in the Republic of Macedonia was 2,022,547 inhabitants, among which: Macedonians - 1,297,981 (64.18%) Albanians - 509,083 (25.17%) Turks - 77,959 (3.85 %) Roma - 53,879 (2.66%) Serbs - 35,939 (1.78%) Bosniaks - 17,018 (0.84%) Romanians - 9695 (0.48%) others - 20,993 (1.04%) )

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Macedonians -64.2% Albanians -25.2% Turks -3.9% Gypsies -2.7% Serbs -1.8% Muslims -0.1% Bosniaks -0.8% Montenegrins -0.1% Croats -0.1% Wallachians -0.5% Bulgarians -0.1% Ethnic groups Orthodox: 1,310,184 or 64.78% Muslim: 674.015 or 33.33% Catholic: 7.008 or 0.34% Other: 31.340 or 1.55% Religion

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The mountain is located on the border of Albania and the Republic of Macedonia, being the highest point of these countries. Natural conditions The ridges of the medium-high mountain systems Skopska-Crna-Gora, Pind, Shar-Planina are located on most of the territory.

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The average annual temperature is +11–12° C, the average temperature in July is +21–23° C, and in January it is about 0° C. The average annual precipitation is 500–700 mm, with more falling in the south. The soils are brown and light brown mountain-forest, often gravelly. The northern part is covered by mountains, and the southwestern part is a flat valley of the Karaorman mountain range. The climate of Macedonia is transitional from temperate to subtropical, which is significantly influenced by mountains.

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Agriculture Most of the agricultural sector is occupied by vegetable and fruit growing. Much attention is paid to industrial crops - tobacco, sunflower, cotton. Pasture animal husbandry is developed in the mountainous regions. The population breeds sheep, goats, cattle, pigs. The country also has poultry and beekeeping. The inhabitants of the lake districts are engaged in fishing.

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The following leading industries are distinguished in the country: tobacco, wine-making, textile. In addition, there is a mining industry, metallurgical industry, chemical industry, metalworking, electrical equipment, machine tools are produced. textile industry chemical industry metallurgy mining industry Industry Chemical industry: Skopje Textile industry: Tetovo, Stip, Veles

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1) The level of air pollution in the Macedonian capital exceeds the permissible norm. 2) Thousands of people in the Balkan countries have been affected in recent days by floods caused by snowmelt and heavy rains 3) Frequent earthquakes Environmental problems

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National clothes The Macedonian national costume is a traditional set of clothes, shoes and accessories of the Macedonians, which has developed over the centuries. It has pronounced local features. The ancient forms of folk clothing among the Macedonians, especially in the western part of Macedonia, are better preserved than among other South Slavic peoples.

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Traditional clothing varied by region, but its main elements were common. The basis of the women's costume is a long tunic-shaped shirt, in some areas (Skopje, Kumanovo, etc.) - very wide, with wedges, with a standing collar, richly decorated with embroidery. Over it is a short or semi-long sleeveless or short-sleeved garment, sometimes with false sleeves. An obligatory detail of the costume is an apron and a colored woven belt. The headdress is a scarf, sometimes under it is a small hat like a fez. The traditional men's costume is a tunic-shaped embroidered shirt, tight or wide trousers, a cloth or fur jacket or caftan, and a bright woven belt. On their feet, men and women wore woolen stockings, opanki - shoes without soles with a bent toe made of rawhide.

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National food Finally, it is worth mentioning what national dishes abound in Macedonia. The cuisine here is its own, but with a very clear Turkish influence. Most often here you can see cutlets from various minced meat, which are spun like kebabs. Again, very popular pies with cheese and meat - bureki. Cheese is especially popular here. "Aivar" - a salad of beans, tomatoes, paprika, garlic, salt and sunflower oil.

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The main river of Macedonia, the picturesque Vardar, crossing the territory of Skopje, divides the capital into two parts: the Old and the New Town. Accordingly, in the old part of Skopje you can get acquainted with the main historical monuments of Macedonia: the Kale fortress, the Mustafa Pasha mosque and many others.

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In the central part of Skopje, not far from the Old Market, the medieval mosque of Mustafa Pasha flaunts - the most striking Islamic monument in Macedonia. The sanctuary was built about five centuries ago, but is still in excellent condition, as if time had not touched it. On the hilly bank of the Vardar River in the very center of Skopje, the ancient Venetian fortress of Kale rises - an unprecedented city symbol, an object of Macedonian national pride. A magical park is laid out on the territory of the fortress, where both townspeople and tourists walk with pleasure.

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MACEDONIA, The Republic of Macedonia, a state on the Balkan Peninsula. Takes approx. 40% of the historical region of Macedonia. Area 25 thousand 333 sq. km. In the north it borders on Serbia and Montenegro, in the east - on Bulgaria, in the south - on Greece, in the west - on Albania. The total length of the borders is 766 km.

Macedonia. The capital is Skopje. Population - 2071.2 thousand people (2004). The population density is 81 people per 1 sq. km. km. Urban population - 62%, rural population - 38%. Area - 25,713 sq. km. The highest point is Mount Korab (2754 m). Official languages: Macedonian and Albanian. Main religions: Orthodoxy, Islam. Administrative-territorial division: 30 regions, including 123 communities. Monetary unit: denar = 100 deni. National holidays: Republic Day - August 2; Independence Day - 8 September. National anthem: "Today over Macedonia a new sun of freedom."

NATURE

Macedonia is a mountainous country. It is located within two large mountain systems: in the extreme west of the higher Pindus mountains, which are a continuation of the Dinaric highlands, and the lower Rhodopes - in the center and east. These mountain systems are separated by the valley of the Vardar river. The highest mountain ranges form the natural borders of the country: on the border with Serbia - Shar-Planina with Mount Titov-Vrh (2748 m), Crna-Gora, Doganitsa, on the border with Bulgaria - Osogovska-Planina and Malesevska-Planina, on the border with Greece - Belasitsa, Kozjak, Kozhuf, on the border with Albania - Korabi with the peak of Korab 2754 m high (the highest point in the country) and Yablanitsa. The central part of Macedonia is a mosaic of lower mountains and intermountain basins.

The climate of Macedonia is transitional from temperate to subtropical. It is characterized by warm summers, moderately cool winters, and even distribution of precipitation throughout the year. The average annual temperature is 11-12° C, the average temperature in July is 21-23° C, in January - approx. 0° C. The average annual rainfall is 500-700 mm, with more in the south.

The rivers are mountainous, non-navigable, but have significant hydropower potential. Some rivers dry up in summer. The largest river in Macedonia, the Vardar, crosses the entire country from north to southeast. Its main tributaries are Crna, Bregalnitsa, Pchinya. Almost all rivers belong to the Aegean Sea basin. The exception is the Drin River, which flows from Lake Ohrid and flows into the Adriatic Sea. In the southwest, on the border with Albania, there are large lakes Ohrid and Prespa, partly belonging to Macedonia, in the southeast, on the border with Greece, there is Lake Doyran.

The soils are brown and light brown mountain-forest, often gravelly. Forests cover approx. 49% of the country's area. Different types of broad-leaved and mixed forests dominate, replacing one another as the terrain rises, from oak-hornbeam with an admixture of maple, linden, pine in the lower mountain belts to beech and beech-fir with an admixture of pine and spruce above 800-1000 m. the slopes in western Macedonia are often covered with shrubs. Above 2000 m above sea level subalpine meadows are widespread. In the extreme southeast, evergreen subtropical vegetation is common on brown soils.

The animal world is not rich. Of the large mammals, there are brown bear, lynx, wild boar, roe deer, chamois, fox, wolf. Hares and other rodents, snakes, lizards are numerous. The avifauna is rich. Its largest representatives are eagles, kites, partridges, cormorants (on Lake Ohrid), and bald eagles (in the vicinity of Lake Tikvesh). There are dozens of fish species in Lake Ohrid, including 13 species of carp (one of them is endemic), European eel, salmon, including endemic Ohrid salmon and trout.

Macedonia has insignificant reserves of ore and non-metallic minerals: iron, lead-zinc, nickel, copper and manganese ore, chromites, magnesite, antimony, arsenic, sulfur, gold. In addition, there are deposits of brown coal, feldspars, dolomite, and gypsum are found.

In Macedonia, attention is paid to the protection of nature. Large national parks have been created on its territory - Mavrovo, Galchitsa, Pelister.

POPULATION

As of July 2004, the country's population was 2,071,122 people. Of these, 21.5% are under the age of 15, 67.8% are between the ages of 15 and 64, and 10.7% are aged 65 and over. The average age of the population is 32.8 years, the average life expectancy is 74.73 years. Population growth in 2004 was 0.39%. The birth rate is estimated at 13.14 per 1000, the death rate at 7.83 per 1000. The emigration rate is 1.46 per 1000. Infant mortality is 11.74 per 1000 newborns.

Largest cities: Skopje (capital of the country, 449 thousand inhabitants), Bitola (75 thousand), Prilep (67 thousand), Kumanovo (66 thousand), Tetovo (50 thousand), Shtip (42 thousand), Ohrid (41 thousand), Strumica (33 thousand).

The ethnic composition of the population: Macedonians - 64%, Albanians - 25%, Turks - 4%, Gypsies - 3%, Serbs - 2%, others - 2%.

The official language is Macedonian, which belongs to the group of South Slavic languages and is spoken by 70% of the country's population. At least 21% speak the Albanian language, which since 2001 has had official status in areas densely populated by Albanians. 3% of the country's inhabitants speak Turkish, Serbian and Croatian and other languages.

OK. 67% of the believing inhabitants belong to the Macedonian Orthodox Church, 30% are Muslims, 3% belong to other faiths.

Religion. Most of the inhabitants of the country (about 67%) belong to the Macedonian Orthodox Church, which in 1958 declared its autonomy, and in 1967 declared its independence from the Serbian Orthodox Church, but its autocephaly is not recognized by other Orthodox churches. Muslims make up 30% of the total number of believers, adherents of other faiths - 3%. There are 1,200 Orthodox churches and monasteries and 425 mosques in Macedonia.

GOVERNMENT

Vardar Macedonia, which was part of Yugoslavia in 1918-1991, was declared an independent state on September 8, 1991. The current constitution was adopted by the parliament on November 17, 1991. According to it, Macedonia is a democratic parliamentary-presidential republic. The constitution was amended in 1992 and 2001.

Central authorities. The head of state is the president, who is elected for a 5-year term in a general election and can serve only two consecutive terms. The President represents the country abroad, is responsible for conducting foreign policy, is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, has the right to veto bills approved by Parliament in the first reading, nominates a prime minister, grants pardons, appoints ambassadors, nominates two members of the Republican Judicial Council and the Council for interethnic relations, appoints the members of the Security Council. Branko Crvenkovski, former leader of the Social Democratic Union (SDSM), was elected president of Macedonia in 2004.

The country's highest legislative body is the unicameral Assembly, consisting of 120 deputies (85 of them are elected by direct universal suffrage, 35 are based on party lists). The term of office of deputies is 4 years. All citizens of the country who have reached the age of 18 are endowed with the right to vote.

Parliament develops and approves the constitution, passes laws, approves taxes and the budget, ratifies international treaties and agreements, calls referendums, approves and removes the government, appoints and removes judges, declares amnesty.

The highest body of executive power is the government. It consists of the prime minister, who is instructed by the president to form the cabinet, and ministers nominated by the prime minister. After that, the government is elected by the parliament and is responsible to it. Since 2004, the Prime Minister has been Khari Kostov (SDSM).

Local authorities. Administratively, Macedonia is divided into 123 communities (7 of them make up Greater Skopje). Communities have local elected bodies of self-government.

Political parties. Macedonia has had a multi-party system since 1990. Main political parties:

Social Democratic Union of Macedonia(SDSM) - founded in April 1991 as the successor of the Union of Communists of Macedonia - the Party of Democratic Changes, has had its current name since 1992. The Social Democratic Party, which is part of the Socialist International. He stands for the social and national emancipation of citizens, the creation of a society of social justice with a democratic rule of law, an effective market economy and joining the processes of European and Atlantic integration. In the field of economy, he calls for economic democracy, protection of the right to work and equality of economic entities. Before being elected president of the country, the party was headed by B. Tsrvenkovsky.

Liberal Democratic Party(LDP) - formed in 1997 as a result of the merger of the Liberal and Democratic parties. He stands for the sovereignty and integrity of Macedonia, for economic and political freedoms and for the defense of the values of liberal democracy. Leader - Risto Renov.

SDSM and LDP lead ruling coalition Together for Macedonia", which also includes Democratic League of Bosniaks,United Roma Party of Macedonia,Democratic parties of Serbs and Turks,Democratic Union of the Vlachs,Working Agricultural Party,Socialist Christian Party of Macedonia And Green Party of Macedonia. In the September 2002 parliamentary elections, the coalition received 40.5% of the vote and 59 seats in the Assembly.

Democratic Union for Integration(DSI) is a radical Albanian minority party created before the 2002 elections by former leaders of the Albanian insurgency. With 11.9% of the vote and 16 seats in the Assembly, it became the largest Albanian party in the country. Joined the ruling coalition with SDSM and LDP. Leader - Ali Ahmeti.

Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization - Democratic Party of Macedonian National Unity(VMRO - DPMNE) - the oldest party that has traditionally advocated the political independence of Macedonia. Founded in 1893, recreated in 1990. Currently, it characterizes itself as a party of Christian democratic orientation, based on the Christian understanding of man and political responsibility. The party advocates the concept of "Macedonism" (national unity of the Macedonians). In the field of economics, he considers the market and private property as the basis of economic development. Supports integration into the EU and NATO. Leader - Lubcho Georgievsky.

Liberal Party of Macedonia(LPM) - broke away from the LDP in 1999. Supports the construction of "civil society", the development of the rule of law, freedom of the market and entrepreneurship. Leader - Stoyan Andov.

VMRO-DPMNE and PLM were in a bloc in the parliamentary elections of 2002. They collected 24.4% of the vote and won 34 seats in the Assembly.

Democratic Party of Albanians(DPA) was founded in 1997. It advocates decentralization in favor of the Albanian minority, improving educational and employment opportunities for Albanians. In the 2002 elections, she received 5.2% of the vote and 7 seats in the Assembly. Leader - Arben Jaferi.

Democratic Prosperity Party(PDP) founded in 1990, the most moderate of the Albanian parties. In 2002 she received 2.3% of the votes, has 2 seats in the Assembly. The leader is Abdurrahman Khaliti.

National Democratic Party(NDP) is the party of the Albanian minority. Received 2.1% of the votes, has 1 seat in the Assembly. The leader is Kastriot Hadjireja.

Socialist Party of Macedonia(SPM) was founded in 1990. It describes itself as a "left democratic socialist party". Declares its commitment to the socialist idea and achieves the provision of social and economic guarantees to all citizens of the country. The party seeks to give privatization a "human face". In 2002 received 2.1% of the vote; has 1 seat in the Assembly. Leader - Lyubisav Ivanov.

There are also parties in the country Democratic Alternative» (centrist, founded in 1998, leader - V. Tupurkovski), Democratic Union and etc.

Judicial system. The country has a three-tier judicial system, including municipal, district courts and the Supreme Court, which is the highest judicial body of general jurisdiction. Judges are generally elected for an unlimited term. The general management of the judicial institutions is carried out by the Republican Judicial Council (consisting of 7 judges), which is elected by the parliament for 6 years and has broad powers to review the composition of courts in cases provided for by the constitution and also nominates two candidates to the Constitutional Court. Constitutional control is in the competence of the Constitutional Court, which consists of 9 judges elected for a term of up to 9 years without the right to re-election. Every 3 years there is a rotation of the Chairman of the Constitutional Court, elected from its own composition. Since 1997, the parliament has appointed an ombudsman (people's human rights activist) for a period of 8 years, who is empowered to investigate cases of human rights violations.

Political parties. In the mid-1990s, approx. 60 political parties, by 2002 their number was reduced to 32.

The largest political party is the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization - the Democratic Party of Macedonian National Unity (VMRO - DPMNE). In 1993, on the anniversary of its 100th anniversary, it was noted that it had 300 thousand members (probably this figure is greatly inflated). VMRO - DPMNE was re-established on June 17, 1990. It proclaims the unity of patriotic and democratic goals, as well as the idea of national unity of all Macedonians (the concept of Macedonianism as "restoring the honor and dignity of the people and their state." These priorities were proclaimed by Ljubcho Georgievsky, who was elected leader party on June 29, 1994. After Georgievsky became prime minister on November 30, 1998, and another leader of the VMRO - DPMNE B. Traikovsky on December 5, 1999 - became president of the country, the party softened the position of "Macedonism", and after the aggravation of the interethnic conflict, went to an agreement with the Albanian national parties regarding constitutional amendments VMRO-DPMNE supports the country's accession to the EU and NATO.

Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM) - the successor to the Union of Communists of Macedonia - the Party of Democratic Changes, SCM - PDP (from its foundation in 1943 until April 1990 it was called the Union of Communists of Macedonia). Formed on April 20, 1991, in May 1992 it was renamed SDSM. In the program adopted in 1993, it declared itself a civil party based on the provisions of modern social democracy and the ethical principles of European humanism, social justice and the dignity of the individual. Chairman - Branko Crvenkovsky; general secretary - Georgi Spasov. Since 1996 the SDSM has been represented in the Socialist International.

Socialist Party of Macedonia (SPM) - founded on September 22, 1990. Adheres to a socialist orientation, the program is based on the principles of the Socialist International. Considers it impossible to achieve well-being and prosperity without socialism; at the same time stands for privatization "with a human face". The party program set the task of providing every citizen of the country with economic and social guarantees. Chairman - Lyubislav Ivanov.

The Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) of Macedonia was formed in January 1997 as a result of the merger of the Liberal Party and the Democratic Party. The Liberal Party (leader Stoyan Andov) took shape in October 1990 as a result of the merger of the Union of Reformist Forces of Macedonia and the Youth Democratic Progressive Party. The Democratic Party was founded in April 1992 by Petar Goshev. In the previous parliament, it had 29 seats in parliament. In the spring of 1999, she briefly served in the government, but never formally joined the three-party ruling coalition. Chairman - Risto Renov.

Democratic Alternative (DA) is a centrist party founded in 1998. Chairman - Vasil Tuporkovsky.

The Democratic Prosperity Party (PDP) was founded on April 15, 1990. It considers itself the least radical among ethnic Albanian parties. In 1994-1998, together with the SDSM, she was part of the government. Supports the autonomy of Kosovo. Currently in opposition. She advocated the full legalization of the university in Tetovo, as well as amending the constitution in order to change the status of Albanians. Chairman - Ymer Imeri.

The Democratic Party of Albanians (DPA) was founded in 1997 by representatives of the younger generation of the PDP. He advocates decentralization in favor of the Albanian national minority living in the western part of Macedonia, improving educational and employment opportunities for Albanians, supports the full independence of Kosovo. Chairman - Arben Jaferi.

Armed forces. The Macedonian armed forces include ground forces, air force, navy and air defense forces. In the ground forces serve approx. 16 thousand people (7 thousand professional military personnel, 8 thousand conscripts, 1 thousand command and officer staff), in the Air Force - 700 people, in the Navy - 400 people. In addition, the police force has approx. 7500 employees. Macedonia, under the auspices of NATO, has begun to reorganize and modernize its army. The core of the army will be two elite motorized infantry rapid response brigades. In addition, the armed forces will include the Air Force, the border brigade and regiments - armored, sapper, communications; battalions - reconnaissance and military police; a guards unit for official events and a unit for the rear service and strategic reserves. Foreign policy. Macedonia's foreign policy situation was complicated by relations with its neighbors, primarily with Greece, which was afraid of territorial claims on the Greek part of Macedonia and demanded that the use of the word "Macedonia" be banned in the name of the state. Only in 1993 the country was admitted to the UN (and then to a number of its specialized organizations) under the name "Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (FYROM). Relations with Greece were normalized in 1995, but problems persist. Relations with Yugoslavia normalized in 1996, but in 1999 Macedonia allowed NATO to use its territory for operations against Yugoslavia. The country is a member of the OSCE and the Council of Europe. The formation of relations with Russia began in 1993 with the conclusion of a bilateral intergovernmental agreement on cooperation. In 1998, the presidents of the Russian Federation and Macedonia signed a declaration of friendship and cooperation.

ECONOMY

By the time of independence, Macedonia was the least developed of the Yugoslav republics, producing approx. 5% of the total volume of goods and services. The collapse of Yugoslavia, which deprived Macedonia of transfers from the center and the benefits of free trade with other republics, the underdevelopment of infrastructure, the UN embargo against Yugoslavia and economic sanctions from Greece until 1996 hampered economic growth. In 1996-2000, GDP growth was observed. From 1990-1993 a broad privatization program was carried out. The ethnic conflict of 2001 dealt a tangible blow to the Macedonian economy; the volume of production of goods and services decreased by 4.5%. In 2002, economic growth was observed at the level of 0.3%, and in 2003 - 2.8%. One of the most acute problems is unemployment, reaching 37%. 24% of the population lives below the official poverty line.

GDP in 2002 was estimated at 10.57 billion US dollars, which corresponds to 5100 dollars per capita. Agriculture provides 11% of GDP, industry - 31%, services - 58%.

Agro-climatic conditions are favorable for agriculture. Wheat, corn and rice are grown from grain crops. Industrial crops such as tobacco, sunflower, cotton, and poppy are of the greatest economic importance. Macedonia is famous for the high quality of tobacco (about 50% is exported) and the production of vegetable oil. Viticulture and winemaking are widely developed. Among vegetable crops, preference is given to growing tomatoes, peppers, melons, and zucchini. A greenhouse economy is also developed, producing early vegetables. Apples, plums, cherries, sweet cherries, pears, walnuts, citrus fruits, blackberries, raspberries, etc. are grown among fruit and berry crops. Mushrooms and medicinal herbs are harvested. Pasture animal husbandry is developed in the mountainous regions. The population breeds sheep, goats, cattle, pigs - 116 thousand. The country also has poultry and beekeeping. The inhabitants of the lake districts are engaged in fishing.

Industrial production, after some growth in the late 1990s, fell by 5% in 2002. In 2001, 6,465 billion kWh of electricity was produced (approx. 84% by thermal power plants and approx. 16% by hydroelectric power plants). The share of brown coal as a primary energy resource in electricity production is approx. 50%, followed by oil and oil products (approx. 30%), followed by hydropower and natural gas. Approximately 65% of energy needs are met by own resources.

Brown coal, chromium, tin, zinc, etc. are mined in the country. There are metallurgical plants in Skopje, Veles, Bitola and Kumanovo, enterprises of transport engineering, electrical industry. The chemical industry is based mainly on imported raw materials. A large chemical plant is located in Skopje. The development of the chemical industry is facilitated by foreign investment (the United States - in the pharmaceutical industry, Turkey - in the production of fuels and lubricants and plastics, Italy - in the production of technical glass). The main centers of the textile industry are Tetovo (production of woolen fabrics), Shtip (cotton mill), Veles (silk weaving mill). They mainly produce ready-made, including knitted, clothes, bedspreads, bed linen, artificial fur, blankets, cotton threads, woolen yarn, fabrics, and carpets. The leather and leather-footwear industry works mainly on imported raw materials and is largely developed thanks to the investments of Italian and Italian-American companies. There is a pulp and paper industry. A significant part of the products of the Macedonian industry is exported.

Dolomites, limestone, feldspar, gypsum, diatomites, marble, etc. are mined from non-metallic minerals. Silicate-ceramic and glass production, as well as the production of building materials, are developed on the basis of local raw materials.

The volume of exports in 2002 was estimated at 1.1 billion US dollars. The country exports foodstuffs, wine and drinks, tobacco products, various industrial products, iron and steel. Main export partners: Germany, Italy, USA, Croatia and Greece. The volume of imports reached in 2002 the amount of 1.9 billion US dollars. Macedonia imports machinery and equipment, chemical products, fuel and foodstuffs; the main partners are Greece, Germany, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Italy, Turkey, Ukraine.

State budget revenues in 2001 were estimated at $1.13 billion; spending - $ 1.02 billion. Macedonia's external debt reached $ 1.3 billion. The country receives substantial economic assistance from abroad ($ 150 million in 2001). The monetary unit is the Macedonian dinar (in 2002 the exchange rate was 64.35 dinars per 1 US dollar).

The length of railways is 699 km. (233 km. electrified), the length of roads - 8684 km. (including 5540 km with hard surface). The country has 18 airports (including 10 paved), including international airports in Skopje and Ohrid.

CULTURE

Education system includes elementary, middle and high school. There are 344 primary eight-year schools in the country, in which 254,000 schoolchildren study. 170.4 thousand students in 331 schools study in Macedonian, 76.6 thousand students in 128 schools - in Albanian, 6.3 thousand students in 36 schools - in Turkish and more than 600 students in 12 schools - in Serbian. In the 1999/2000 academic year, there were 92 public secondary schools with approximately 91.1 thousand students (3 of them for the disabled, with 340 students) and 3 private secondary schools. Education in secondary school is two-, three- and four-year. Secondary schools are divided into those providing classical, special vocational and artistic education. 76.1 thousand students studied in the Macedonian language in public schools, in Albanian - in 22 schools approx. 14.4 thousand people, in Turkish - in 4 schools approx. 600 people.

There are three universities in Macedonia: Saints Cyril and Methodius in Skopje (opened in 1946), Saint Clement of Ohrid in Bitola and the Albanian University in Tetovo (founded in 1995, received official recognition in 1998). At the universities of Skopje and Bitola, approx. 34.8 thousand students, most of them Macedonians (89.2%); Albanians 5.6%, Turks - 1.1%, Vlachs - 0.9%, Gypsies - 0.1%, representatives of other national minorities - 3.1%. Approximately 30 colleges operate within the universities. In addition, there is a Faculty of Education which trains teachers of Macedonian and other languages of ethnic minorities. Education in Macedonia is free. In addition, the state provides grants for food and lodging for high school and university college students. The cost of education before the start of the inter-ethnic conflict in 2001 was 5-6% of GDP.

In Macedonia, attention is paid to the education of the adult population: there are courses for completing secondary education, acquiring a specialty and retraining. Courses for the study of computer science, computer science, teaching foreign languages, the basics of management, business, etc. are offered.

History of culture. In the Republic of Macedonia, traces of the culture of Ancient Macedonia, a province of the Roman Empire, and then the historical region of Macedonia, have been preserved. Natives of Macedonia Cyril and Methodius in the second half of the 9th c. translated the Bible into the Thessalonica dialect, which played a big role in the development of Slavic writing. In an old one, mentioned from the 3rd c. BC. In the city of Ohrid in 886, one of the disciples of Methodius, the educator and writer Clement of Ohrid (840-916), began his activity. In the 11th-14th centuries. on the territory of Macedonia, its own style of fresco painting was established. The monasteries on Mount Athos (Halkidiki) at that time were recognized centers of education. The Hilendar Monastery was widely known.

After the Ottoman conquest, the culture of Macedonia underwent a Turkicization, persisting mainly in the countryside in the form of folklore and traditional crafts. The monasteries were the guardians of spiritual culture and literature. In 1762 the monk of the Hilendar and Zograph monasteries Paisius of Hilendar (1722-1798) completed the book Slavic-Bulgarian history(first published in 1844) - a monument of national revival.

The idea of an independent (from Bulgarian) Macedonian language appeared in the 1870s and became more widespread in the early 20th century. In post-war Yugoslavia, Macedonian literary journals began to appear, in 1946 the Union of Macedonian Writers was created, and in 1954 the Society for the Macedonian Language and Literature began to publish fiction in the Macedonian language. Literature until the 1990s was dominated by the traditions of realism.

Architecture and art. Many architectural monuments have been preserved in Macedonia - the buildings of Orthodox churches and monasteries, as well as monuments from the times of Islamic domination - mosques, civil structures, etc. After the 1963 earthquake, Skopje was rebuilt according to the design of the Japanese architect K. Tange (b. 1913).

Based on local traditions, the fine arts developed in the 1920s, it bears the marks of archaism; in recent years, Macedonian artists and sculptors have mastered the styles of modern art.

Traditions of secular music emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1907, the singing society "Vardar" arose, and since the 1930s - professional musical groups. The first theater troupe in Skopje appeared in 1901, in 1913 the first permanent Serbian People's Theater (from 1945 - the Macedonian People's Theater) was opened there, in 1947 an opera troupe was created at this theater. In total, in 1994 there were 10 theaters in the country (with the exception of small stages) and 6 symphony orchestras.

The Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts was founded in 1967. There are several scientific institutes and societies. There are 17 museums throughout the country. Most of them are concentrated in Skopje. Among them, the most famous are: the National Museum, the Macedonian Museum of Natural History, the Museum of Modern Art, the Museum of the City of Skopje, the Museum of Art of Macedonia.

Mass media. Relatively large circulation newspapers are published: in Macedonian "Nova Makedonia" (25 thousand copies) and "Vecher" (29 thousand copies), in Albanian "Flyaka e vellazerimit" (4 thousand copies) and in Turkish - Birlik. The Macedonian News Agency has been operating since 1993.

Broadcasting is carried out on three radio and three television channels - in Macedonian, Albanian and Turkish. There are 49 radio stations and 31 TV stations in Macedonia. The Macedonian population owns 410,000 radios and 510,000 televisions. Macedonia has about 410,000 telephone lines and more than 12,000 mobile phones. In 2001 there were 100 thousand Internet users.

In the history of mankind, the small country of Macedonia left a deep mark. Since ancient times, the history of Greece and Rome, the Slavs and the Byzantine Empire, the conquest of the Turks and the struggle for the national and social revival of the Balkan peoples have been connected with its fate.

STORY

In the era of antiquity, Macedonia played a big role in the life of the tribes and peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, especially in the life of the Greek states. Having lost its independence due to Roman expansion, it, as part of the Roman provincial system, was an important strategic center for protecting Roman communications in the eastern Mediterranean. The Romans made extensive use of the productive forces of the Macedonian province, uncontrollably exploiting its natural resources.

This rich and complex Macedonian history has been studied in one way or another by historians over the past two hundred years.

Greek-Macedonian relations, as the history of the ancient world in general, became the subject of extensive study already in the 18th century, during the period of the intensified struggle of the bourgeoisie rising to power against the old feudal order. At that time, questions of Macedonian history were covered mainly in the presentation of the history of Greece. There was no general view of Macedonia as a country that had its own political system, social life and historical destinies. Macedonian history was considered part of the Greek one.

The first works of historians idealized and modernized the Macedonian monarchy. In this regard, studies on the history of Greece by the English scholar of the late 18th century are characteristic. Mitford. Being a conservative, an ardent opponent of the French revolutionary movement, he paid main attention to the development of an aristocratic state, of which Sparta acted as a representative, and to the glorification of the monarchical power in Macedonia. In monarchical rule, Mitford found the main advantage of Macedonia over its southern neighbors. He considered it possible to identify the Macedonian monarchy with the old constitution of England, and to compare the struggle for succession to the throne and strife between the Macedonian tribes with the position of England before the war of the White and Scarlet Roses. 4) Such a modernizing approach led the author to distort the process of decomposition of family ties and the emergence of the Macedonian state misconceptions about Greek-Macedonian relations.

In Germany, Niebuhr, in England, Grotto came out as ardent opponents of Mitford's views. On the contrary, they expressed their bias towards Athenian democracy and their negative attitude towards Macedonia and its institutions.

In his studies of ancient history, Niebuhr everywhere emphasized his sympathy for Athens, antipathy for Sparta, Thebes, and especially for Macedonia and Alexander. Without understanding any of the socio-economic reasons for the party struggle in the 4th century. in Athens, nor the essence of the formation of the Macedonian statehood, the Bonn professor Niebuhr reduces these big problems in essence to the history of two statesmen: the Macedonian - Philip, the Greek - Demosthenes. All the author's sympathies are on the side of Demosthenes and his like-minded people.

Close to Niebuhr's views are the views of George Groth, set forth by him in his twelve-volume History of Greece, which extremely idealized Athenian democracy. In it the author saw the purest personification of freedom and equality, he found the ideal of bourgeois democracy.

Like Niebuhr, who called the Macedonians robbers and wished that “the earth would open up and swallow all the Macedonians,” Grotto believed that since the Macedonian period, the political and social life of Greece was constrained, that this period did not arouse any historical interest, since it did not influence at all on the future fate of the world.

If Niebuhr and Grotto ignored Macedonia and considered it only a dark spot in history, “a disgusting deposit of every perversion, rotten and dead”, then Droysen, on the contrary, attached great importance to Macedonia, Alexander and his policy towards the conquered peoples.10)

Droysen's political ideal is the unification of Germany under the rule of the Prussian monarchy, and the historian sought justification for it in ancient history. This ideal has gained particular popularity. At that time, representatives of German historical science began to successfully propagate it.

In assessing the relations between Macedonia and Greece, Droysen had in mind the attitude of Prussia towards the then Germany. This view of the historian influenced the assessment of the facts of the history of the past. In his History of Hellenism, the Macedonian monarchy is portrayed as the highest form of national unification of the Greeks.

Idealizing the Macedonian way of life, customs and mores, Droyzen showed admiration for Philip and Alexander and spoke enthusiastically about their aggressive policy. He pointed out that the highest goal of Philip, for the achievement of which he gave all his efforts and strength, was the unification of Greece.

In relation to Greece, to Athenian democracy in general, and to Demosthenes in particular, Droysen is unfairly strict and critical. He accused Demosthenes of the short-sightedness of his policy, of the futility of his patriotic aspirations.

Droysen was opposed, especially the spirit of his research, by French scientists. They began to suspect that the criticism of the German historians had as its ultimate goal propaganda in favor of a pan-German alliance under Prussian hegemony. In the words of the Greek scholar Jean Calleris, a duel was created between the "Athenians" of Paris and the "Macedonian imperialists" of Berlin. French scholars emphasized that the Greeks paid with the loss of their democratic freedoms for a pan-Hellenic alliance under Macedonian hegemony.

The general works of Niebuhr, Groth and Droysen at one time had a great influence on the bourgeois historiography of the ancient world in general and Greek-Macedonian relations in particular. To a certain extent, they contributed to the publication of special works on the history of ancient Macedonia.

In the first half of the XIX century. published a number of monographs on ancient Macedonian history.

In 1825 Otfried Müller's work “On the Location, Origin and Ancient History of the Macedonian People” appeared.14) In it, the author paid special attention to the problem of the ethnicity of the Macedonians. He was the first to consider this issue from a historical and philological point of view and came to the conclusion that the Macedonians were of Illyrian origin.

In 1832, Ludwig Flate published the first volume of his work "History of Macedonia and the states conquered by the Macedonian kings." Flate's book, by the author's own admission, was an attempt to write an independent history of Macedonia. But in this story there are no ideas about historical patterns. All historical phenomena are explained according to Hegelian philosophy by the movement of the world spirit. “Dark,” says the author, “is the eternal movement of the world spirit through the tribes of people, and it is not clear why it builds and why it allows it to fall.”

In an effort to prove the Greek origin of the Macedonian people, Flate begins Greek-Macedonian relations from the era of Greek tribes settling in the Balkans. In this regard, he examines in some detail the Greek and barbarian tribes that lived on the territory of Macedonia, attracting for this, mainly mythological material. Nevertheless, Flate believes that the history of Macedonia can only begin from the 5th century, with the activities of King Amyntas. “With King Amyntas, the dull morning of Macedonian history begins,” he wrote. Philip's accession to the throne he noted as a turning point in the history of Macedonia. His power was achieved, wrote Flate, not by cunning and deceit, as Demosthenes, who succumbed to feelings of hostility towards Philip, proved, but by the decisive activity of the Macedonian king. Philip's victory was explained only by the presence of irreconcilable enmity between the Greek states. The author, defending Philip from the attacks of Demosthenes, was critical of the policy of the latter.

In 1847 O. Abel's work "Macedonia before King Philip" appeared.24) It gives a detailed geographical description of the country and attempts to understand the difficult issue of Macedonian ethnogenesis. In contrast to Muller's point of view, the author put forward the main thesis that the Macedonians were Greeks.25) To substantiate this, he provides evidence of the linguistic similarity of the two peoples, similarities in religion, customs, in public institutions.26) “The difference between the Macedonians and the Greeks, -- he wrote, “it was not a difference of national origin, but a difference of different stages in the history of one and the same people...”

The author considers the time of Alexander I to be a turning point in the history of relations between the Macedonians and the Greeks, when “the abyss that previously separated these two peoples is being destroyed.”

From the middle of the 19th century, both Macedonian history and Greek-Macedonian relations continued to attract the attention of Russian scholars as well.

In 1851, the master's thesis of I.K. Babst was published by the Moscow school of general historians T.N.

Making extensive use of sources, Babst not only described the internal situation of Greece, but turned to the study of Macedonia, to the history of its rise.

Through all his work, Babst carries the idea that the inner life of Greece in the 4th century BC. BC e. was in complete decline, from which she could not get out on her own, and that her salvation could only come from outside. If the Macedonian dominion had not arrived, in his opinion, "Greece would have perished and destroyed itself, only by the power of its internal decay." Thus, Babst considers the Macedonian conquest of Greece as a historically necessary phenomenon, although he, due to his class limitations, could not reveal the main reason for this phenomenon. For the same reason, he also could not understand the essence of a new era in the history of the ancient world, the era of Hellenism. But the very posing of the question, the novelty of the research, and the correct resolution of a number of the problems posed were undoubtedly a great merit of the historian at that time.29) Babst's work was then a significant event in Russian historical science and was recognized and highly appreciated by prominent historians. Granovsky responded to this study with a short but very sympathetic review and a solid article by the senior student of the latter and his comrade in the department P. N. Kudryavtsev.

Noting the positive aspects of the monograph, Kudryavtsev launched a debate on a number of fundamental issues. He sharply disagreed with Babst on the subject of the Macedonian conquest of Greece. In contrast to Babst, Kudryavtsev considered the Macedonian conquest a catastrophe and an accident. 31) In his opinion, the Greeks could not foresee the catastrophe, since it was accidental and happened before they realized all the danger threatening them from Philip.

Kudryavtsev believed that Macedonian intervention in Greek affairs was not the only way out for Greece. Contrary to Babst, he believed that Greece contained signs of vitality, thanks to which it could unite on its own, if the rise of Macedon had not been so unexpected.

At the very time when representatives of the Granovsky school in Moscow were studying Greek-Macedonian relations, in St. Petersburg the students of M. S. Kutorga were also actively working in this direction.

One of the closest students and admirers of Kutorga, M. M. Stasyulevich, in his doctoral dissertation “Lycurgus of Athens” analyzes the era of the Macedonian conquests from the point of view of Greek interests. was no less dangerous for Macedonia than Demosthenes. From Stasyulevich's study of the budget of Athens, it is clear that the Athenians still had enough financial resources to carry out the plan of Demosthenes.

Another student of Kutorga, N. A. Astafiev, in his work “Macedonian hegemony and its adherents”, tried to explain how the Macedonian dominion arose. Studying the activities of party groups fighting in Greece, the author points out that the Macedonian conquerors had to make many efforts to consolidate their dominance in it.36) But Astafiev did not understand the essence of this Macedonian domination at all.37)

From the school of M. S. Kutorga, F. F. Sokolov also left, whose scientific interests, unlike other students, forever remained in the field of ancient history. Sokolov, in turn, managed to create a school of antiques, which already in the 70-80s. began to enrich science with valuable works on various issues of Greek-Macedonian relations and publications of important epigraphic sources in Russian and foreign languages.

F. F. Sokolov's own articles cover various aspects of Greek-Macedonian life. His works: "The Treaty of Amyntas with the Thracian Chalcidians" and "The Athenian Decree in honor of Aristomachus of Argos" - still have not lost their value in terms of clarifying the economic and trade relations of the Macedonians with their neighbors.

During this period, a three-volume fundamental work by Arnold Schaeffer appeared, in which Greek-Macedonian relations were reduced mainly to the activities of Demosthenes and his opponent Philip. The latter is given too severe a sentence, while the former is sung with unfounded praises.

In Schaeffer's work, we will not find any analysis of the socio-economic causes of the party struggle of the 4th century. in Greece, nor an analysis of the social structure of Macedonia.

Bourgeois historiography, primarily representatives of the reactionary school of Bismarck's Germany, revised their views on the issue of Greek-Macedonian relations and began to glorify Macedonia and its kings. The activities of the latter were seen as a historical justification for the aggressive policy of German imperialism. Considering pan-Hellenism, imbued with the spirit of militarism, as the driving force of the Macedonian conquests, bourgeois historians began to raise the personalities of Philip and Alexander to the shield, belittle Athens and their democratic leaders, deny the progressive significance of Athenian democracy and oppose to it the paramilitary system of aristocratic Sparta. The most extreme and sharp exponent of such a hypercritical trend was J. Schwartz, who wrote two volumes of The History of Democracy.40) This work, devoted to the history of democracy in Europe and America, is a political pamphlet that clearly expressed the turn of bourgeois historiography towards reaction. Schwartz's work is of interest only as a speech against the other opposite extreme, against excessive admiration for Athens, which was characteristic of many philologists and historians in its time. to attribute to "such advocates" a narrow-mindedness or vanity and personal interests that prevented the grandiose and salutary plan of a pan-Hellenic union.

V. P. Buzeskul spoke out against the hypercriticism and anti-scientific subjectivism of European scientists in Russia, and it was not by chance that he devoted most of his works to the history of Greek democracy. In them, he tried to look at Athenian democracy objectively, to portray it as it really was, with its light and dark sides, without denigrating or idealizing it. “Only the totality of both makes up, so to speak, its physiognomy, and only by paying attention to both, one can give a true idea of it.” connection with the class struggle in the Greek states, to find the right way to resolve this problem. Sharply opposing the modernization of Athenian democracy, he urged to judge it from the point of view of that time, “contemporary to it, the orders and conditions of the world of that time.” character.

At the end of the XIX and at the beginning of the XX centuries. in the general and special works of bourgeois scientists, the modernization of the socio-economic relations of antiquity, the idealization of state institutions and public figures receive special expression. At this time, the theory of pan-Hellenism became widespread, which, in the person of the German historian J. Kerst, acquired its zealous supporter.

In 1917, the second edition of Kerst's two-volume work on the history of Hellenism was published. In it, he examines the history of Macedonia in close connection with the situation of the Greek states, in which, in his opinion, "the action of numerous destructive forces and destructive tendencies" was manifested.

The main question of the later history of Greece, according to Kerst, is the question of the relationship between it and Macedonia: did the latter complete the unification of Greece or did it destroy Greek freedom.

In describing Greek-Macedonian relations, Kerst clearly shows the advantage of Macedonia over a weakened Greece, idealizing the Macedonian state institutions. Kerst declares the Macedonian monarchy to be the main organizing force of the Macedonian state. It turned out not to be a conservative force, like the closed city-state of the Greeks, but a progressive historical and even world-historical force. The Macedonian monarchy, Kerst points out, was strong because it had roots in the Macedonian people. The Macedonian people, in his opinion, were a monarchical people, the most monarchical of all the peoples of antiquity. Kerst calls Philip an outstanding representative of the monarchy, whom he considers a brilliant organizer, a tireless educator of the army, a worker on the throne.

Kerst comes to the conclusion that the Macedonian hegemony over Greece was the embodiment of the ideas of pan-Hellenism. Attaching great importance to the Corinthian Congress, he noted that as a result of its creation, the Greeks and Macedonians were able to jointly create history.

The modernizing trend in the depiction of ancient history was especially pronounced in the works of the 1920s. In this regard, the monograph on Demosthenes written by Georges Clemenceau, who imagined himself to be the French Demosthenes, the savior of France, as the new democratic Athens, from the encroachment of the new Macedonia, i.e., Prussian Germany, is not without interest. In his book Demosthenes' Rival in the Bourbon Palace, Georges Clemenceau attacked the "barbarian" Philip of Macedon and his associates.47) This work is important not so much as a presentation of factual history, but as a confirmation of how modernization leads to a distortion of historical reality.

In 1930 Geyer's work appeared on the history of pre-Philippian Macedonia. Geyer, like his numerous predecessors, raises the question of the ethnicity of the Macedonians and strongly argues that the Macedonians were Greeks. kings, and not with the interests of the Macedonian state.

Beginning in the 1930s, scholars in the West began to show particular interest in Demosthenes and Philip.50) At this time, there are tendencies to worship the Macedonian king

Philip, his ebullient activity. Characteristic in this regard is Wilken's work on Alexander the Great, in which Philip is given great attention.

Taking the point of view of the idealization of the Macedonian king, Vilken attributes all the Macedonian conquests to Philip, this “great imperialist”, who, implementing his “imperialist program” and “stormy imperialism”, sought to “make his Macedonian people master of the entire Balkan Peninsula.” Vilken praises the policy of conquest and evaluates the Macedonian conquests from the point of view of this policy.

The process of fascisization of the big bourgeoisie, which has intensified especially since the establishment of the fascist regime in Italy and Germany, could not but influence bourgeois historical literature as well.

The fascist regime sharply intensified the reactionary currents in Italian and German bourgeois historiography. Evidence of this may be the work of the Italian historian Momigliano and the German historian Teger. In Momigliano's work on Philip and in the three-volume history of Teger's antiquity, one general idea is carried out - the idea of exalting a strong personality, worshiping her military exploits.54) Momigliano portrays Philip as a person who comprehended his historical role, as a remarkable and victorious figure, their victories, peace and happiness to the Greeks.55) Overestimating the role of the individual in history and clearly modernizing the individual, the author believes that the difficult situation in which Macedonia found itself before Philip came to power could be eliminated only with the appearance of a person who would combine a deep political intelligence, the ability of a commander, the courage of a warrior, which could charm the soldiers.

Such a man was Philip, who, according to Momigliano, acted as an autocrat. The author clearly does not like freedom: Greek democracy, which, according to him, was selfish. He considers Philip's great merit the elimination of this egoistic freedom of the Greeks and the establishment of order in Greece, which led to peace and justice Momigliano believes that only such a person as Philip could give the Greeks all these benefits; Greek democracy could not create this. The positive policy of Demosthenes is completely ignored by the author.

Sights of Macedonia

Geography of Macedonia

It borders in the north with Serbia and Montenegro, in the east with Bulgaria, in the south with Greece and in the west with Albania. Macedonia is a continental country and does not have access to the sea, however, it occupies a convenient place on the Moravian-Vardarian transport axis, along which the main land route (railway and highway) from Western Europe to Greece passes.

The landscape of the country consists of ancient mountain ranges and younger rocks in basins in the place of the dried-up part of the Aegean Sea; The Vardar lowland is located along the course of the Vardar River. The Vardar valley continues in the east with a number of less pronounced basins located somewhat higher: in the north, the Preshevo-Kumanovskaya basin, connecting Macedonia with the Moravian Valley, Ovche Pole, Shtipskaya and Kochanskaya basins, Radovishskaya and Valandovsko-Doyranskaya basins. Along the Vardar river and in the north of Eastern Macedonia are hilly areas of volcanic origin, rich in minerals (lead, zinc, copper, iron). In Eastern Macedonia, medium-altitude mountain spurs cross the area from east to west: Belasitsa in the south, Pliachkovitsa, Malesheskie and Osogovskie mountains and Kozjak in the north, between which are the valleys and basins of Strumica, Bregalnica and the Curve River, along which the main road from Macedonia to Bulgaria.

Mostly mountainous Western Macedonia is divided into two parts by the Prilep-Bitola valley (Pelagonia). In the south are the Ohrid and Prespa basins with the lakes of the same name. To the east, the predominantly alpine Karadzhitsa highlands stretch (the highest point is Solunskaya head, 2538 m). Along the river Crna lies the Prilepsko-Bitola basin. The earthquake in Skopje in 1963 reminded that tectonic processes had not yet ended on the territory of Macedonia.

Climatic conditions in some parts of Macedonia differ significantly due to the indentation of the territory by mountains of different heights above sea level. In the middle Povardarya, Mediterranean and continental air currents mix. Average annual July temperatures exceed +25°C there, and January temperatures are below 0°C. Cold air from the north reduces the temperature to -20°C. In the Ohrid and Prespa basins, the amplitude of temperature fluctuations is much smaller. Snow falls on Shar-gora and in Karadzhichi, the melting of which feeds mountain rivers and provides water for hydroelectric power stations.

87% of the surface waters of Macedonia flow down the Vardar and Strumica rivers into the Aegean Sea, the rest - along the Black Dream River into the Adriatic Sea. The Vardar River, which becomes shallow in summer, is fed by its tributaries Pchinya and Bregalnica on the left side and Treska, Babuna, Topolka and Crna on the right. Lake Ohrid is similar in fauna and flora to Baikal and some African lakes. Another tectonic lake - Prespanskoe - partly belongs to Greece and Albania. Part of the Doyran Lake also belongs to Greece. There are lakes of glacial origin on Shar-gora, Pelistra and Yakupitsa. The underground healing waters that come to the surface are used by resorts and hospitals. Mineral water springs are exploited near the town of Bitola.

In areas of the Mediterranean climate, mixed deciduous forests (oak, hornbeam) grow, in the Strumitsa region - Crimean black pine, in the mountains - alpine vegetation. National reserves are parks near the cities of Mavrovo, Galicia and Pelister.

Population of Macedonia

During 1921-91 the population of Macedonia increased by 155% (annual increase - 2.2%). In the beginning. 1990s the birth rate was 20‰, the death rate was approx. 7‰. There is a gradual aging of the population: the proportion of young people under the age of 19 is approx. 1/3. Urban population approx. 80%. More than 160 thousand people are employed in industry.

Ethnic composition (1994): 66.5% - Macedonians, 22.9% - ethnic Albanians, there are also Turks, Gypsies, Serbs, etc.

Industrialization and urbanization led to the growth of Macedonian cities. In the beginning. 1990s approx. 30% of the total population of the republic. After the 1963 earthquake, when the city was badly damaged, new urban areas sprang up. Other large cities are Bitola, Kumanovo, Prilep, Tetovo, Veles, Ohrid, Shtip.

The vast majority of the Slavic population of Macedonia consider themselves Orthodox, ethnic Albanians profess Islam.

History of Macedonia

The ancient name "Macedonia" was borrowed by the local ruler Bisan in the 9th century. When the Byzantine state collapsed in 1204 after the 4th crusade, neighboring countries began to fight for the Macedonian lands. In 1230 they were included in the Bulgarian kingdom, and later, due to them, the Serbian state began to expand, which, during the time of King Milutin, annexed the northern part of present-day Macedonia with the city of Skopje, and in the 1340s. under King Dushan, the rest of the Macedonian territory. Later, during the time of feudal fragmentation, the brothers Vukashin and Uglesha Mrnyavchevich united against the Turks, but were defeated in the battle of Maritsa in 1371, after which Macedonia was captured by the Turks and remained part of the Ottoman Empire for as long as 500 years. Periodic uprisings against Turkish oppression grew into a con. 17th century into a real people's war of the Macedonians under the influence of the penetration of Austrian troops into the Balkans. In the 18th century Austro-Turkish wars were fought for the Macedonian lands. From Ser. 19th century a powerful movement began for the transition from Turkish to Macedonian in schools and churches.

After the Berlin Congress of 1878, Turkey began to transform from a run-down Turkish outskirts into a compact region with a Slavic identity. In 1893, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) was created, headed by Gotse Delchev, under whose leadership the Ilinden uprising against the Turks in the Bitola region began on August 2, 1903, culminating in the proclamation of the Krushevo Republic. The uprising after 3 months was brutally suppressed by Turkish troops. The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 contributed to the transformation of the Macedonian people's liberation movement into a legal political organization.

After the 1st Balkan war against the Turks, the victorious countries could not agree on the division of Macedonia among themselves, which led to the 2nd Balkan war of 1913. According to the Bucharest peace, South Macedonia, along with the coast of the Aegean Sea, went to Greece, East Macedonia went to Bulgaria, and central and the northern parts of Macedonia remained in Serbia. After the 1st World War, according to the Treaty of Versailles, the partition of Macedonia into three parts (Vardara in Serbia, Aegean in Greece and Pirin in Bulgaria) was finally sanctioned. The territory of present-day Macedonia as part of Serbia entered in 1918 into the Yugoslav Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

After the defeat of Yugoslavia in the April 1941 war against Nazi Germany, the western part of Vardar Macedonia was formally annexed to Albania, but in fact to Italy. The eastern part of Vardar Macedonia and part of southeastern Serbia were occupied by Bulgaria. In September 1941, the regional headquarters of the liberation war against the invaders was created in Vardar Macedonia, which acted jointly with the all-Yugoslav people's liberation army. After World War II, Vardar Macedonia became an independent entity within Yugoslavia - the People's Republic of Macedonia, where it underwent profound social and economic transformations during the years of socialism.

After the collapse of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the Macedonian population voted in a referendum on September 8, 1991 for the independence and sovereignty of Macedonia. Due to the resistance of Greece, which strongly objected to the name of the new state Macedonia, the process of its international recognition was delayed. It was not until 1993 that a compromise was reached and a new state called the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia was admitted to the UN. The first years of the young state were not cloudless internationally. It was subjected to an economic blockade not only from the south (from Greece), but also from the north due to international sanctions against Serbia, and Bulgaria for a long time did not recognize the Macedonian nation and the Macedonian language, considering it a dialect of the Bulgarian language.

As early as November 1990, the first free multi-party elections to a new unicameral parliament were held in Macedonia. In 1991 the Constitution was adopted. The country's leadership managed to ensure its peaceful development in the face of political upheavals and armed clashes in most of the former Yugoslav republics. Macedonia carried out market reforms similar to those carried out in other post-socialist countries.

The most serious internal political problem in Macedonia was the explosive conflicts between the Albanian minority and the Slavic majority of the population, which intensified after the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 and the virtual separation of Kosovo from Serbia. Macedonia then received many Albanian refugees from Kosovo, whose presence had a destabilizing effect on the political and economic situation in the country. Detachments of the UN Armed Forces were deployed on the territory of Macedonia for preventive purposes.

In February 2001, Albanian nationalists, with the support of militants from Kosovo, unleashed armed clashes with the Macedonian police and army. An armed NATO contingent was introduced into the country in order to prevent a large-scale civil war. Under pressure from Western peacekeepers, in May 2001, a government of national unity was formed from representatives of the four largest parties of both national communities.

State structure and political system of Macedonia

According to its state structure, Macedonia is a parliamentary republic with an influential president. A multi-party political system has been operating since 1990. The first president, Kiro Gligorov (1991-99), was replaced by Boris Trajkovski.

Until 1998, the country was ruled by the government of the socialist Branko Crvenkovski, which was supported by a parliamentary coalition of two parties: the Social Democratic Union of Macedonia (SDSM) and the Albanian Party for Democratic Prosperity (PDP). In 1998, the liberal party All-Macedonian Revolutionary Organization - the Democratic Party of Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE) won the next parliamentary elections, which, in coalition with the Democratic Party of Albanians (DPA), formed a government led by Lubcho Georgievski.

On September 15, 2002, the fourth parliamentary elections were held in independent Macedonia. The center-left bloc “Together for Macedonia”, which won the victory, as part of the SDSM and the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which absolutely dominated there, received exactly half of the seats in the Assembly of the Republic (60 out of 120). The coalition that ruled the country before the elections, consisting of VMRO-DPMNE and the Liberal Party, got 33 deputies into parliament, i.е. much less than she received in previous elections.

The third largest parliamentary faction was created by the party of ethnic Albanians - the Democratic Union for Integration (DUI), which received 16 seats in parliament, significantly ahead of other Albanian parties, of which the Democratic Party of Albanians received 7, the Party for Democratic Prosperity - 2, the National Democratic Party - 1 mandate. The Socialist Party also managed to get one deputy into parliament. The Social Democrat Nikola Popovski was elected Chairman of the Assembly.

The elections were preceded by a sharp escalation of tension between Macedonians and ethnic Albanians, who make up 1/3 of the country's population. Despite the fact that in 2001, after the signing of the Ohrid Agreement, which ended the inter-ethnic armed conflict, amendments to the Macedonian Constitution were adopted that expanded the collective political rights of the Albanian community (the Albanian language was given the status of a second official language, Albanians were proportionally involved in law enforcement agencies and other structures of executive power, an amnesty for militants was declared), militant Albanians resumed terrorist attacks three weeks before the vote. A wave of terror was unleashed by the so-called. The Albanian National Army (ANA) is a radical group that continues to fight for the territorial division of Macedonia with arms in hand. She made several attacks on police checkpoints, murdered Interior Ministry officials, and took hostages.

After the parliamentary elections, the ethnic confrontation tearing apart Macedonia did not disappear. The new Macedonian government was approved at a special session of Parliament on October 31, 2002 after several weeks of negotiations between the coalition parties. The 39-year-old leader of the SDSM, Branko Crvenkovski, headed the cabinet of ministers. The main posts in the new cabinet of ministers were distributed among three parties: the SDSM, the LDP and the Albanian DSI.

Economy of Macedonia

Until 1945, Macedonia was an underdeveloped agricultural region, where handicrafts and trade were mainly present. Only 1% of the population was employed at 127 industrial enterprises. During the 2nd World War, almost all industry, most of the crafts and trade were destroyed. After the war, under the new government, the accelerated industrialization of the country began. In 1960-87, the social product increased 3 times, industrial production - almost 9 times, and handicraft products - 2.2 times.

At present, agriculture provides approx. 13.2% of GDP and almost completely satisfies the needs of the population in food. The land is mostly in small private ownership: 68% of households have less than 2 hectares of agricultural land.

Modern forms of agriculture are used where irrigation of land is possible in dry summers. Macedonia has favorable conditions for growing cotton, high quality tobacco, poppies and vegetables. OK. 20% of arable land is sown with wheat. Forests occupy 35.2% of all land, mainly in mountainous areas.

The water resources of the rivers favor the construction of hydroelectric power plants. The country generates 4.7 billion kWh of electricity per year. In Macedonia, 5.6 million coal is mined in the Oslomei mines near the city of Kichevo and in the Bitola region.

Among the most developed industries is metalworking. In Skopje, industrial, construction and agricultural equipment, buses and car bodies are produced, in Ohrid - auto parts and machine tools, in Kocani - car and tractor parts, in Veles - metalworking machines, in Stipe - agricultural machinery and household metal products. Electrical goods are produced in Skopje (transformers), Ohrid (insulation materials), Prilep (electric motors), Bitola (refrigerators) and Gevgelija (electric ceramics).

The chemical industry is developing on the basis of domestic raw materials in the cities of Skopje, Ohrid, Strig, Kumanovo and Tetovo. An oil refinery with a capacity of 2.5 million tons of oil per year was built near Skopje. There are enterprises of the textile and clothing industry, food and tobacco industries are developing on the basis of local raw materials, a large porcelain and sanitary ceramics factory operates in Veles, and cement and glass factories in Skopje. The construction industry accounts for approx. 5% of GDP.

Macedonia has approx. 5,000 km of paved roads, the most important of which is the motorway from the Serbian border to the Greek border via Skopje. International airports have been built in Skopje and near Lake Ohrid. Tourism is developed mainly on the shores of the Ohrid, Prespan, Doyran and Mavrov lakes, winter tourism is on Shar-mountain (Popova Shapka), health resorts and hydropathic centers work all year round.

Like all other transition countries, Macedonia experienced a significant decline in social production, which dragged on until 1995. The revival of economic activity that followed in the next three years was again suspended in 1999 due to the negative impact on the Macedonian economy of the armed conflict over Kosovo, which led to the influx of numerous Albanian refugees. After a successful economic year of 2000, when the GDP grew by 4.5%, in 2001, due to the armed interethnic conflict, the GDP again decreased by 4.1%. The country's economy could not recover from the onset of a deep crisis in the next year. The economic and social problems accompanying the economic development of Macedonia during the years of its independence have become aggravated.

In April 1992, the country introduced its own currency - the dinar, later pegged to the German mark. The strengthening of the dinar took place in parallel with the fight against inflation, which accelerated after the liberalization of prices. Thanks to the tight monetary policy of the People's Bank, it was possible to reduce the annual inflation rate to less than 5%. Financial stabilization was also expressed in overcoming the deficit of the state budget, which in 1999 was balanced, and in 2000 had a surplus of 2.6% of GDP. The country's tax system is adapted to the requirements of a market economy, although it carries a significant social burden.

A serious problem in Macedonia is unemployment, which, according to various estimates, is 30-40% of the working population.

The country carried out the privatization of industrial and commercial enterprises, as well as banks. On horseback 2001 there were 21 commercial banks and 17 savings institutions. In 6 banks, including the two largest, foreign capital prevails.

Science and culture of Macedonia

In Macedonia, there are 9.8% of illiterate citizens. Education is conducted in basic (eight-year) and secondary schools in Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish and Serbian.

University of Skopje Cyril and Methodius (since 1949), since 1979 - a university in Bitola, 3 academies and 6 higher schools, some of them are located in the cities of Prilep, Shtip and Ohrid.

Research work is carried out mainly at universities, and since 1967 also at the Macedonian Academy of Sciences and Arts. The most famous scientific centers are the Institute of the Macedonian Language, the Institute of Seismic Engineering, the Agricultural Institute (all located in Skopje), the Tobacco Institute in Prilep and the Hydrobiological Institute in Ohrid.

There are 10 professional theaters in Macedonia. Since 1961, international Struga singing evenings, Racine literary meetings and other international cultural events have been held annually. The first Macedonian printed editions began to appear in 1896 in Sofia (Vine, Revolution).

It occupies an area of more than 25 thousand square meters. km. The monetary unit is the Macedonian dinar. The geography of Macedonia is of genuine interest, since Macedonia is a young country formed after the collapse of Yugoslavia.

Convenient geography of Macedonia

Despite being landlocked, geography of Macedonia is distinguished by its advantageous position in the south-east of Europe between Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Bulgaria and Albania.

Macedonia time

Macedonians live according to European time. That's why Macedonia time ahead of time in Moscow by 2 hours. As in most European countries, there is a transition to summer and winter time.

Climate of Macedonia

Most of the territory is under the influence of temperate continental air. The south of the country is dominated by a Mediterranean type of climate. Climate of Macedonia characterized by dry hot summers and mild snowy winters, which contributes to comfortable conditions for living and recreation.

Macedonia weather

Summer in the intermountain basins is hot and rainless. The temperature is kept in the range from +18 to +22 degrees. In the mountains Macedonia weather more changeable. The temperature can drop to +15 degrees, sudden short-term precipitation in the form of rain is possible. In winter, the temperature rarely drops below -3 degrees. About 300 mm of precipitation falls in the mountain basins, and in the mountains their amount is about 1700 mm per year. From late November to mid-March, there is snow cover in the mountains.