Scientists and travelers of antiquity. Great travelers: list, discoveries and interesting facts

To the question: Which great travelers and geographers in the ancient world helped the accumulation of knowledge on earth? what did they do, in what years? given by the author Olive 😀 Oil the best answer is Ancient Mediterranean geography
The pre-Socratic philosophical tradition has already given rise to many prerequisites for the emergence of geography. Anaximander proposed that the Earth was shaped like a cylinder, and made the revolutionary assumption that people should also live on the other side of the “cylinder”. He also published individual geographical works.
In the 4th century. BC e. - V century n. e. ancient encyclopedist scientists tried to create a theory about the origin and structure of the surrounding world, to depict the countries known to them in the form of drawings. The results of these researches were the speculative idea of ​​the Earth as a sphere (Aristotle), the creation of maps and plans, the determination of geographic coordinates, the introduction of parallels and meridians, and cartographic projections. Crates of Mallus, a Stoic philosopher, studied the structure of the globe and created a model of the globe, suggesting how the weather conditions of the northern and southern hemispheres should relate.
“Geography” in 8 volumes of Claudius Ptolemy contained information about more than 8,000 geographical names and coordinates of almost 400 points. Eratosthenes of Cyrene was the first to measure the meridian arc and estimate the size of the Earth; the term “geography” (land description) also belongs to him. Strabo was the founder of regional studies, geomorphology and paleogeography. Aristotle's works set out the foundations of hydrology, meteorology, oceanology and outlined the division of geographical sciences.
Among the geographical ideas of the ancient world, inherited by modern geography, the views of ancient scientists are of particular importance. Ancient (Greco-Roman) geography reached its peak in Ancient Greece and Rome in the period from the 12th century. BC. to 146 AD
In Ancient Greece around 500 BC. The idea of ​​the spherical shape of the Earth was first expressed (Parmenides). Aristotle (IV century BC) provided the first reliable evidence in favor of this idea: the round shape of the earth's shadow during lunar eclipses and the change in the appearance of the starry sky when moving from north to south. Around 165 BC The Greek scientist Crates from Malla made the first model of the globe - a globe. Aristarchus of Samos (III century BC) was the first to approximately determine the distance from the Earth to the Sun. He was the first to teach that the Earth moves around the Sun and around its axis (heliocentric model of the cosmos).
The idea of ​​geographical (climatic) zonality, based directly on the idea of ​​the spherical shape of the Earth, also originates in ancient geography (Eudoxus of Cnidus, 400-347 BC). Posidonius (on the border of the 2nd-1st centuries BC) identified 9 geographical zones (we currently distinguish 13 zones).
The idea of ​​changes in the earth's surface also belongs to the oldest achievements of ancient thought (Heraclitus, 530-470 BC), and yet the struggle for it ended only two and a half millennia later, at the beginning of the 19th century. AD
The main directions of geographical science originated in Ancient Greece. Already by the 6th century. BC. the needs of navigation and trade (the Greeks founded a number of colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Seas at that time) necessitated descriptions of the land and sea coasts. At the turn of the 6th century. BC. Hecataeus from Miletus compiled a description of the Oikumene - all the countries known to the ancient Greeks at that time. “Description of the Earth” by Hecataeus became the beginning of the regional studies trend in geography. In the era of “classical Greece,” the most prominent representative of regional studies was the historian Herodotus of Halicarnassus (485-423 BC). His regional studies were closely connected with history and were of a reference and descriptive nature. Herodotus traveled through Egypt, Babylonia, Syria, Asia Minor, and the western coast of the Black Sea; gave a description of cities and countries in the work “History in Nine Books.” Such travels did not lead to the discovery of new lands, but contributed to the accumulation of more complete and reliable facts and the development of descriptive and regional studies in science.
The science of classical Greece found its completion in the works of Aristotle of Stagira (384-322 BC), who founded in 335 BC. philosophical school - Lyceum - in Athens. Almost everything

Introduction

1.Great travelers of antiquity

1.1 Travelers of Ancient Greece

1.1 Herodotus

1.3 Eudoxus

1.4 Alexander the Great

1.5 Strabo

1.2 Travelers of Ancient Rome

1.2.1 Aeneas (mythology)

2.2 Apostle Paul

2.3 Pausanias

2.4 Hippalus

Conclusion

Introduction

People have traveled at all times. As humanity developed, it discovered new lands and improved means of transportation. There is practically no culture whose history is not woven into the history of travel.

Without travel it is impossible to imagine the development of human civilization. Thanks to travel, there was an opportunity to come into contact with other peoples and overcome the isolation of one’s culture. In other words, travel is the main means of dissemination and interpenetration of cultures.

Among scientists who study the cultures of different peoples, there are those who believe that the similarity of cultures on different continents is associated with the travels of ancient people. These scientists believe that the history of world culture depends on the “traveling man.”

That is why studying the history of ancient travel is of great importance.

The purpose of this work is to study the most famous travelers of the ancient era.

As part of the goal, the following tasks are set:

.Study material on the research topic

.Expand the research topic based on the material studied.

1.Great travelers of antiquity

In its most general sense, the word "antique" means "ancient." But there is also a narrower and at the same time more widely accepted meaning: when they talk about antiquity, they mean belonging to the ancient Greek or ancient Roman culture (civilization), which have a long history: from the first centuries of the 1st millennium BC. and until the 5th century AD. The geographical knowledge of the Greeks and Romans was at a very high level. For modern historians of geography, it is also extremely important that among all ancient civilizations, the ancient ones offer the most complete set of sources by which one can judge geographical knowledge as a real system, and not just a set of disparate information.

1.1 Travelers of Ancient Greece

The era of antiquity includes several periods: the archaic period (Creto-Mycenaean culture); the period of the beginning of the development of the civilization of Ancient Greece; Hellenistic period (the rise and fall of the civilization of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome). The word “antiquity” itself translated from Latin means “antiquity”, “antiquity”.

Emerging in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC on the island of Crete, the Minoan culture reached its peak by the 17th - 16th centuries. BC. At this time, the Cretan fleet dominated the Eastern Mediterranean. XIV - XII centuries BC. were the heyday of Mycenaean culture. From Egyptian sources it is known that the Achaeans raided Egypt, Asia Minor and other countries. The cause of the death of the Mycenaean culture was the Dorian tribes who came from the north of the Balkan Peninsula. They laid the foundations of ancient Greek civilization. And the Creto-Mycenaean culture disappeared. Only fragments of it have survived to this day.

From the 12th century BC. we can talk about the birth of the civilization of Ancient Greece. Moreover, from the XII to the VIII centuries. BC historians call the “dark period” of the development of this era. During this time, all memories of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture were erased. Neither Thucyditus, nor Herodotus, nor Aristotle even mention it in their writings. And only Homer in the 7th century. BC. in his poems he vaguely hinted at some mysterious culture of the past. Homer described the history of the Trojan War, which was fought in the 12th century. BC. Thanks to the discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann and Arthur Evans, humanity was surprised to discover that the siege of Ilion by the Achaean army under the leadership of the Mycenaean king Agamemnon was not the fruit of a Homeric invention, but a real historical fact.

Greek scientists call Homer, who lived in the 9th-8th centuries, the “father of geography”. BC.

According to tradition, the first person to introduce the Greeks to Homer's poems was the Spartan king Lycurgus. Their recording and final editing were made in Athens by a special commission appointed by the tyrant Pisistratus (VI century BC). It was also established that they were required to be read by the entire people during festivals in honor of the goddess Athena - Panathenaia. These works were included in all school curricula of numerous ancient Greek city-states. Plato even expressed the following thought: “Homer educated all of Greece.” Dante Alighieri called Homer "the king of poets." The artistic culture of all subsequent eras, from antiquity to modern times, is saturated with images of Homeric heroes.

The Iliad is dedicated to the Trojan War (c. 1200 BC), and the Odyssey tells the story of the return of the king of Ithaca, Odysseus, to his homeland after the end of this war.

There is every reason to believe that the Odyssey describes the real journey of sailors across the Mediterranean and Black Seas.

There are a lot of similarities in the journeys of the Argonauts and Odysseus. They describe a known but not yet fully studied ecumene, the outskirts of which are “inhabited” by all kinds of monsters and wizards. Therefore, only heroes like Jason and Odysseus can visit there (even visiting Hades, like Argonaut Orpheus or Odysseus) and return to their homeland. Travels of this rank were perceived by the Greeks as heroic deeds.

In Ancient Greece, travel reached its greatest growth in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. This same period is the heyday of philosophy, art, mathematics, astronomy, cosmology and other sciences. The civilizational centers were the cities of Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus and Colophon. But Athens was the center of attraction.

In order to understand the world, sages, natural philosophers and poets went to all corners of the world. Almost all major ancient Greek philosophers carried out long journeys. The sage and philosopher Thales of Miletus studied in Egypt for more than twenty years. The philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras and the legislator Solon visited the Nile Valley in order to gain knowledge. The philosopher Plato, having made a long journey, founded a philosophical school upon returning home. Xenophanes of Colophon was a wandering rhapsodist poet.

But it was not only knowledge that attracted travelers to these countries. They were attracted by grandiose ancient architectural monuments. So ancient that Pythagoras, in comparison with them, is perceived as our contemporary. When visiting Egyptian monuments, travelers often left short notes on their walls - "graffiti", which translated from Italian means "scratched". At the tombs of the pharaohs in Thebes alone, Egyptologist J. Bayeux discovered more than two thousand similar inscriptions dating back to the times of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

1.1.1 Herodotus

One of the first learned travelers was Herodotus, who, according to Cicero, is the “father of history.” Herodotus was born around 484 BC in the Asia Minor city of Halicarnassus. He came from a rich and noble family with extensive trading connections. At a young age, due to political turmoil, he left his hometown and lived on the island of Samos. Disillusioned with politics, Herodotus began to become interested in the history of his people and, above all, mythology. Many researchers believe that it was the desire to visit the places where Hercules performed his exploits that prompted Herodotus to travel. Coming from a wealthy family, Herodotus did not need money.

He traveled all over Greece and Asia Minor, then sailed to the Phoenician city of Tire. Most of all, Herodotus was attracted to the East and its rich cultural heritage. Herodotus traveled through Libya, visited Babylon, but he was especially struck by Egypt, where he stayed for three months. In Egypt, he asked the inscriptions to be translated for him, asking the priests about the history of this state. He was interested not only in the life of the pharaohs, but also visited embalmers' workshops. He measured the length of the perimeter of the base of the pyramids in steps, making specific mathematical calculations. Returning to Greece, Herodotus shared his knowledge with his compatriots. This was his first trip.

Herodotus's second journey passed through Asia Minor, from where he arrived by ship to the Northern Black Sea region, through the Helespont to the Milesian colony of Olbia at the mouth of the Dnieper-Bug estuary. There he met with the nomadic tribes of the Scythians, observed their customs and rituals, and studied their social system.

Herodotus devoted his third journey to studying the Balkan Peninsula. He traveled around the Peloponnese, the islands of the Aegean Sea (Delos, Pharos, Zakif and others), then traveled through southern Italy and the north of the Balkan Peninsula.

Herodotus traveled for 10 years (from 455 to 445 BC), and outlined all his observations in 9 books, each of which was named after one of the muses. In his famous work “History,” Herodotus described not only the history of many peoples, but also ethnographic signs, i.e. description of facial features, skin color, type of clothing, way of life, rituals, folk signs, general way of life, etc.

Herodotus's "History" intricately combines his personal observations, real information about distant countries obtained in his travels, with a retelling of mythological events. Herodotus is distrustful of stories about people with goat legs or werewolves from the Neuroi tribe, but he quite seriously describes the giant gold-mining ants from the Indian desert. Herodotus also did not believe the testimony of the Phoenicians, who circumnavigated the African continent, that during the voyage the sun turned out to be on their right side.

Despite the existing inaccuracies, it is difficult to overestimate the importance of Herodotus’ work. He collected many ancient ideas about the world, described the geography of many countries, the life of different peoples.

Only fragments of his writings have reached us, but the main thing is that Herodotus has the glory of the first Greek tourist, since, unlike his predecessors, he traveled not to achieve some other goals, but for the sake of the journey itself, i.e. for the sake of pleasure, to satisfy one’s own inquisitiveness and curiosity.

Herodotus believed that the clearest example of a traveling people were the Etruscans, or, as the Greeks called them, Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians - people from the state of Lydia, located on the territory of Asia Minor. The name of the legendary Etruscan prince Tyrsenus was preserved in the name of the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Returning as a young man to his homeland, Halicarnassus, the famous traveler took part in the popular movement against the tyrant Lygdamis and contributed to his overthrow. In 444 BC, Herodotus attended the Panathenaic festivals and read excerpts from the description of his travels there, causing general delight. At the end of his life, he retired to Italy, to Turium, where he died around 425 BC, leaving behind him the fame of a famous traveler and an even more famous historian.

traveler tourism geography regional studies

1.1.2 Pytheas

In the VII-VI centuries. BC e. Etruscan civilization reached its peak. By this time, she was comparable in her influence on the sea with such great maritime powers as the Hellenic and Carthage.

During this era, travel was carried out mainly for economic, political and military purposes. One example of travel for economic purposes was the journey of the Greek merchant Pytheas. The intensification of competition between the Greek city-states, on the one hand, and Phenicia and Carthage, on the other, for dominance in trade in the Western Mediterranean basin, which led to local military conflicts, forced Pytheas to go on an independent search for new Western European markets.

The Phoenicians did not allow foreign merchants to cross the Strait of Gibraltar, traffic through which was controlled by special garrisons located in Gadis (Cadiz) and Tingis (Tangier) on both sides of the strait. The Phoenicians had a monopoly on goods such as tin, amber, and a number of varieties of expensive furs, which they supplied to the Mediterranean countries from the British Isles and Northern European countries.

In 325 (according to other sources in 320) BC. Pytheas sailed on one ship from his hometown of Messalia (now Marseilles) to the Mediterranean Sea. Sailed through Gibraltar and, rounding the Iberian Peninsula, entered the Bay of Biscay. Then he sailed along the coast of the Celtic country and reached the English Channel. There he landed on the island of Albion, which means “White”, named because of the frequent fogs. On this island, Pytheas learned from the inhabitants that to the north of them lies the land of “Thule”, which translated from the local dialect means “edge”, “limit”.

Pytheas went around the British peninsula from the west, and through the Northern Channel between Britain and Ireland entered the Atlantic Ocean. Pytheas tried to reach the land of "Thule" (now the island of Iceland). He sailed through the Orkney and Shetland Islands and, having reached the Ferer Islands, went further to 61° north latitude. None of the ancient Greeks or even the Romans went this far to the north. But Pytheas’ further voyage was hampered by impenetrable fogs that form when northern ice enters the warm Gulf Stream. Pytheas was forced to turn south to the shores of the Scandinavian Peninsula.

Later, in his notes, Pytheas will call the land of Thule “the last limit,” which in Latin sounds like “ultima tule.”

But Pytheas's journey did not end there. Pytheas sailed east and arrived at the mouth of the Rhine, where the Ostions lived, and then the Germans. From there he sailed to the mouth of the Elbe and returned to Messalia.

Information about Pytheas' travels is contradictory. Some ancient authors believe that Pytheas, on his way back, sailed further east, entered the Baltic Sea and then descended along the Dniester into the Black Sea (Pont Euxine) and through the Bosporus and Dardanel entered the Mediterranean Sea and returned home. However, many ancient Greek historians are suspicious of such descriptions. But Pytheas’s northern journey and his achievements are indisputable.

1.3 Eudoxus

The interests of the ancient Greeks were very diverse. They turned their gaze to all corners of the world. The ancient Greeks took the lead of Europeans in sailing to the shores of India. But, in fairness, it must be said that the Greeks used the information they received from Egyptian travelers.

For example, the Greek navigator Eudoxus of Cyzicus, on the orders of Pharaoh Ptolemy III, undertook a voyage to the shores of India, sailing from Egypt, accompanied by an Indian guide. The sailors successfully reached their desired goal.

Eudoxus made his second expedition to India on the instructions of Queen Cleopatra for a cargo of incense. But on the way back, the winds carried the ship south of Ethiopia, and Eudoxus was forced to move along the coast of Africa.

During his third voyage (120 - 115 BC), he sailed around Africa, as the Phoenicians did, but died at the end of the journey.

1.4 Alexander the Great

Considering the travels of the Hellenistic era, one cannot help but note the military campaigns of Alexander the Great, which lasted for 10 years. In the ancient world, these campaigns were considered an unheard of, almost legendary feat. The glory of the brilliant military victories of the great Alexander was reflected in folk legends throughout the Middle Ages.

In 330 BC. The troops of Alexander the Great, having defeated the Persian kingdom, reached southern Afghanistan. Then, through modern Kandahar and Ghazni, they went to Kabkl. From there, having passed the Khawak pass (3,548 m) in the Hindu Kush mountain system, we arrived in Northern Afghanistan. After this, the Macedonian king made his campaign to the Syr Darya and reached modern Khujand (until 1991 - the city of Leninabad). Then the army turned south and invaded Punjab, where, due to the discontent of the soldiers, heat and disease, Alexander was forced to go back, during which he was overtaken by death.

Without going into the military details of this campaign, we can safely say that it ended for the Greeks, and then for the Romans, with the opening of the route to India. Thanks to this campaign, the Greeks and Macedonians became acquainted with little-known, or even completely unknown, peoples, their culture, way of life, and traditions. Personally, Alexander the Great was interested in exploring Asia. Alexander was surrounded not only by warriors, but also by outstanding scientists and artists. In their works they described in detail everything they saw, heard and studied during this campaign.

This campaign marked the beginning of museology. After the victory over the Persians, Alexander sent money to his teacher Aristotle. With this money, Aristotle founded a natural science museum. Aristotle asked his royal student to send him samples of unknown plants and skins or stuffed animals, which was done by order of Alexander.

During the voyage of Nearchus, not only a map of the coast was drawn up, but also natural phenomena were studied, in particular monsoon winds, and knowledge of botany and zoology was expanded. Nearchus met many tribes and peoples, learned their customs and laws.

Thus, the campaign of Alexander the Great can be considered a “scientific expedition”, since the conqueror surrounded himself with naturalists, mathematicians, historians, philosophers, botanists and artists.

1.1.5 Strabo

The geographical ideas of Herodotus were expanded by the ancient Greek scientist and traveler Strabo, born in the 1st century. BC. in the southeastern part of the Asia Minor peninsula. Strabo, coming from a noble and wealthy family, received an excellent education and had the opportunity to travel to various parts of the Roman Empire. He visited Italy, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Rome itself; on his long journeys, Strabo reached Armenia and the borders of Ethiopia.

As a result of these travels, he collected extensive historical and geographical material, which was subsequently used in two major works: “Historical Notes” and “Geography”, consisting of 17 books. The fates of these two creations of Strabo are completely opposite: if the first is almost completely lost, then the second has survived to this day almost entirely and brought fame to this scientist, which already has a thousand-year history.

"Geography" tells about Spain, Italy, Greece, India, Egypt, Central and Eastern Europe, Middle, Central and Asia Minor. Strabo not only describes nature and population, but also makes historical excursions, mentioning some facts not known to any other sources.

Strabo considered geography to be part of philosophy, interpreting it from the position of the Stoic ideas of Posidonius. He considered Homer to be a completely reliable source of geographical information. Strabo had no idea about mathematical geography, limiting himself to descriptive geography, hence his often unfair criticism of his predecessors, in particular Eratosthenes. Strabo's descriptions are accurate, and some remain the main source of our knowledge to this day, for example, descriptions of the Nile Delta and Alexandria. Strabo also paid attention to history, and especially to the cultural history of the countries described. He addressed his essay to a wide circle of readers; in it he also expressed a kind of admiration for the power of Rome. According to Strabo, the Earth was an island washed by the Ocean, which created 4 gulfs: the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean Sea and the Persian Gulf. He was the first to express the idea of ​​a gradual dismemberment of the land. He divided the populated world into Europe, Asia and Libya, that is, Africa. Strabo's "Geography" is the largest geographical work that has come down to us from antiquity. Along with the work of Claudius Ptolemy, it represents the source of our information about ancient geography. Strabo wrote simply and laconically, without rhetorical embellishments. Strabo's work was little known until the 5th century. AD Then it became a classic work on geography, and Strabo was simply called the Geographer.

Ancient Greek culture enriched humanity with knowledge about the world around us, raising travel to the rank of a mass phenomenon, but we can talk about the initial stages of the tourism industry from the era of Ancient Rome.

1.2 Travelers of Ancient Rome

2.1 Aeneas (mythology)

The civilization of Ancient Rome was based on travel. One of the main defenders of Troy during the Trojan War, Aeneas, is considered the founder of Rome. After the defeat, Aeneas was forced, saving his family, to flee from the city captured by the Achaeans.

Virgil dedicated the poem “Aeneid” to this journey. The path of Aeneas's small fleet lay through the Aegean Sea, then, rounding the Peloponnese through the Adriatic Sea, the travelers arrived in Epirus, located on the western coast of the Balkans, from where they proceeded to Sicily. A sudden storm threw their ships to the northern coast of Africa, and only the intervention of Neptune himself saved them from certain death.

In Carthage, Aeneas was smitten by the love spells and hospitality of the dowager queen Dido. But the supreme god of the Romans, Jupiter, sent Mercury (later the patron saint of wanderers) to Aeneas to remind him of the need to continue the journey.

Aeneas resumes his wanderings. The Trojans arrive on the Apennine Peninsula, where they initially stop at the city of Cuma, and then, after the prophetess Sibyl gave Aeneas an “excursion” to the Kingdom of the Dead, where the ghost of his deceased father told him about the future great destiny of Rome, they continue their journey, which ends at banks of the Tiber. And five centuries later Rome was founded there.

The Trojans still faced many trials. The local population - the Latins - start wars against them. And only the marriage of Aeneas with the daughter of the king of the Latins, Lavinia, ended this bloody conflict. But in order to appease the local gods, in particular Juno, they undertook to adopt the language and traditions of the Latins.

Emperor Octavian Augustus played a major role in editing and disseminating the myth of Aeneas. This allowed Roman aristocrats to trace their ancestry back to the Trojans.

The history of the formation and spread of Christianity is directly related to the journey of both Jesus himself and his apostles.

2.2 Apostle Paul

The most outstanding preacher of the new religion was the Apostle Paul. He accepted his new faith after he had a vision of Jesus speaking to him while traveling to Damascus. Paul traveled a lot during his missionary work. He visited Asia Minor, Greece, Syria, Palestine. Paul returned to Jerusalem after three long journeys to the eastern part of the Roman Empire, where he was arrested and sent to Rome. This was the last journey of the apostle: in 64 AD. e. Paul was executed on the outskirts of Rome for his active missionary work and the development of Christian theology. The Christian faith in the Roman Empire was persecuted until the 4th century. n. e.

2.3 Pausanias

The first traveler of our era, whose name has been preserved in history, was the Greek writer Pausanias. He lived in Rome and traveled widely throughout the Greek and Roman provinces. He published a description of his travels, compiled in the form of a guidebook (Description of Hellas), in ten books around 180 AD. Pausanias described Attica (the southeastern part of central Greece) and Athens in particular detail. From Attica he moved to Corinth and explored the islands of the Aegean Sea. He then gave a description of Laconia and Sparta, listing the names of all the roads and provinces.

2.4 Hippalus

The journey of the merchant Gippalus in 14-37 was of great importance for the development of trade. AD He set out from East Africa and reached the Indus Delta. He established the pattern of monsoon movement in the Indian Ocean and sailed from Cape Fartak to the Indus Delta. Hippalus wrote the book "Navigation around the Erythraean Sea." This essay describes the coast of Africa from Cape Guardafui to the island of Zanzibar. The southern coast of Arabia and most of the western coast of India are also described.

“Description of a journey along the Pontus Euxine” (Black Sea) belongs to the pen of the Greek historian Arrian, who lived in the 2nd century. n. e. In his work, Arrian tries to characterize the countries and peoples living along the shores of this sea. Truly encyclopedic works were “World History” by Polybius and “Geography” by Claudius Ptolemy.

Travelers in Ancient Rome were apostles and emperors (Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius), generals and scientists. The military campaigns of the Romans, such as those of Caesar in Gaul, Claudius in Britain, and Scipio in Africa, led to the expansion of reliable geographical knowledge. The Romans build roads, lay down fortresses, some of them will eventually become the capitals of European states: Singidunkum (Belgrade); Aquincum (Buda, later merged with the left bank of Pest); Vindobona (Vienna).

Even a philosophy of tourism is emerging. Lucius Annaeus Seneca in his “Letters to Lucilius” substantiates the idea that for tourism it is necessary to “choose places that are healthy not only for the body, but also for morals.” Because, Seneca believes, “and the terrain, without a doubt, is not devoid of the ability to corrupt.” They cite such famous resorts as Kanop and Bailly as dens of all vices.

But at the same time, the philosopher claims that “it is not the sky that needs to be changed, but the soul,” because “everywhere you go, your vices will follow you.” In support of this thesis, Seneca cites Socrates’ statement: “Is it strange that you have no benefit from traveling if you drag yourself everywhere?” To get the maximum benefit and pleasure, one must travel with a pure soul - ancient scientists believed.

Conclusion

Travelers of antiquity made a huge contribution both to the history of the development of tourism, geography and culture, regional studies, ethnography, various sciences and teachings, and to world history in general.

Throughout human history, travelers have obtained important information that has served as a valuable source of knowledge in various sciences. Based on the collected materials, scientists built various concepts that explain the historical development of a particular country. They resorted to their help when trying to prove or disprove any hypotheses and ideas.

Thus, thanks to the travelers of antiquity, new lands and peoples were discovered, rich geographical material was accumulated, which contributed to further travel and discoveries.

List of used literature

1.M.V. Belkin, O. Plakhotskaya. Dictionary "Ancient Writers". Access mode:

Makarenko S.N., Saak A.E. History of tourism. Access mode:

Sokolova M.V. History of tourism: a textbook for students of higher educational institutions. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2006.

Encyclopedia for children: T. 3 (Geography). - Comp. S.T. Ismailova. - M.: Avanta+, 1994.

Hanno's voyage

One of the most ancient travelers about whom information has reached us was Hanno from Carthage. Carthage was located on the coast of North Africa (near modern Tunisia). It was a rich and strong city-state. Its merchants had numerous settlements on the islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia. Brave Carthaginian sailors sailed into the Atlantic Ocean more than once. In the south of the Iberian Peninsula they founded the large trading city of Gades (now called Cadiz).

Around 525 BC e. From Carthage, by decision of the Senate, a large expedition set out on a long voyage on 60 fifty-oared ships to explore the western shores of Libya (as Africa was then called) in order to find places for colonies. The expedition was led by Hanno, one of the Carthaginian suffets - senior officials. He was supposed to subsequently take 30 thousand colonists to new settlements.

Having passed the Pillars of Melqart (Strait of Gibraltar) and making a short stop in Hades, the ships moved along unknown shores to the southwest. They walked either with oars or with sails. Two days later, when the sun barely had time to dispel the morning fog, a wide plain appeared on the shore in the distance, and beyond it a forest could be seen. A river flowed across the plain (the modern Sousse River). The Carthaginians liked the place. Here they decided to establish the first settlement. It was named Thymiatheria. Moving further south, the Carthaginians founded several more colonies. Along the way, the sailors more than once saw elephants and other African animals grazing peacefully.

Finally, they reached the mouth of the great Lique River (modern Cebu River). Along its shores lived nomadic shepherds who hospitably received the sailors. From them Hanno learned that to the south lay the island of Kerna. There, you can get a lot of gold dust from local residents in exchange for various goods. Hanno sent most of the ships to Carthage, and he himself, with several ships, moved further south in search of Cerna. Soon monotonous deserted shores stretched out. The wind blew from the mainland, bringing sweltering stuffiness and heat.

They sailed like this for many days. Finally, the sandy shores began to give way to grassy meadows. Groups of trees began to appear more and more often. Having rounded a forested cape, the ships entered the bay of Rio de Oro (“Golden River”), located near the northern tropic. In the bay we landed on the small island of Kern. The Carthaginians laid out their goods on the shore (fabrics, iron objects, rings, bracelets and other jewelry), lit fires to attract the attention of the local population, and returned to the ships. After some time, they went ashore again and found leather bags of gold sand instead of the goods they had left behind.

Wanting to secure the island of Kern for Carthage, Hanno settled several sailors here, providing them with everything they needed. Soon they were to be replaced by colonists. Continuing their voyage, Hanno's ships reached the mouth of the Senegal, the largest river in West Africa. But it was not possible to climb far up it. Local residents, dressed in animal skins, greeted the unexpected guests with a hail of stones. I had to turn back. After a second unsuccessful attempt to land, Hanno returned to Kerna.

Having replenished his supplies of water and food, he undertook another voyage to the south. The ships sailed for a long time. When travelers landed on shore, the local population greeted them unfriendly. One day, the sailors, who had just settled in for the night, were amazed by an amazing sight: numerous lights flashed at regular intervals in all directions. What could it be? Probably, signals about the arrival of strangers were transmitted using bonfires. Another time, having landed on the shore of the Western Horn Bay, the sailors were awakened at night by loud screams, sounds of flutes and drums. Seized with fear, without waiting for dawn, the travelers raised anchors and sailed away from the shore.

We sailed further and further south. They began to notice that the coast was deviating to the east. At noon, the sun rose so high that objects did not cast shadows. The polar star hung very low above the horizon. For four days, Hanno and his companions observed a powerful eruption of the volcano Theon-Ochema (Cameroon on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea), which means “chariot of the gods.”

For three days the ships drifted across the stormy sea until they washed up on the shores of the quiet Southern Horn Bay (Gabon Bay near the equator). We landed on a small island in the depths of the bay. Here you could relax and repair ships. But unexpectedly, huge gorillas attacked the Carthaginians. Having entered into battle with these terrible monkeys, the Carthaginians forced them to flee. Three animals were killed. They decided to take their skins to Carthage.

Having finished repairing the ships, Hanno decided to return to Carthage. He was afraid that there would not be enough food for further voyage. Hanno's voyage was one of the most remarkable voyages of antiquity. After him, for two thousand years (until the middle of the 15th century), none of the sailors dared to penetrate further south along the coast of Africa.

Travelers of ancient Greece

An outstanding traveler of antiquity was the Greek historian and geographer Herodotus from the port city of Halicarnassus on the western coast of Asia Minor. He lived in an era when ancient Greece waged a difficult struggle with the mighty Persian power. Herodotus decided to write the history of the Greco-Persian wars and tell in detail about the nature and life of the population of the countries that were under Persian rule at that time.

Herodotus made his travels in 460-450. BC e. He visited Greek cities on the coast of Asia Minor. Then he visited many areas of the Balkan Peninsula (in the territory of modern Bulgaria and Yugoslavia). Herodotus made a long journey that immortalized his name to Scythia, a country that occupied the southern regions of the Ukrainian SSR.

On one of the Greek ships, Herodotus headed to the Greek Black Sea colony of Olbia. Lived here for several weeks. From the city he made a number of trips around the country and met with many Scythians. Before Herodotus, Scythia was little known to the Greeks. They had a vague idea of ​​the country, although they traded with it. Herodotus’s information is of exceptionally great importance for the history of the south of our Motherland.

Herodotus, who was born and raised in mountainous and wooded areas, was struck by Scythia with its huge treeless plains and rich pastures. The Scythian winter, which lasted several months, seemed harsh to Herodotus. He wrote that in Scythia in winter, spilled water “does not make dirt” (that is, it freezes). Summer also seemed very cold and rainy to him. Herodotus was amazed by the huge rivers of Scythia - Hypanis (Southern Bug), Borysthenes (Dnieper), Tanais (Don) and others. He knew from childhood that in Greece rivers originate in the mountains, but in Scythia there are no mountains. In his opinion, these rivers must begin in some large lakes. Despite this erroneous view, Herodotus generally correctly characterized the Scythian plain. Herodotus was especially interested in the tribes that inhabited Scythia and neighboring regions. The Scythians, who lived in the steppe and partly forest-steppe zones, were divided into farmers and cattle breeders.

The nomadic lifestyle of the Scythian herders seemed unusual to the Greeks. Herodotus collected interesting information about the peoples who lived to the north, northeast of the Scythians. He learned about the Tissaget and Irka hunters who inhabited the “stony and uneven land” (this is probably the Urals and Kama region), about the dense forests growing there, where beavers, otters and other fur-bearing animals live. Further on, at the foot of high and inaccessible mountains (this is undoubtedly the Ural ridge), the Argypean tribes live. They have shaved heads and flat faces with large chins. Argypeans eat the fruits of the Pontik (cherry) tree. They call the juice of these fruits mixed with milk “askhi”. Probably, we were talking about the Kalmyks, who at that time lived at the foot of the Urals.

Herodotus was told that even further away lay the habitat of one-eyed people - the Arimaspians. There's a lot of gold there. But he is guarded by vultures - terrible monsters that look like lions, with eagle beaks and wings. In the far North, beyond Scythia, there are uninhabited lands, it is very cold there, there is snow all the time and it is night for six months.

From Scythia, Herodotus went to the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. From the inhabitants of Colchis he learned that beyond the mountains stretches the huge Caspian Sea, and behind it is a vast plain. Warlike tribes live there - the Massagetae. Before Herodotus, the Greeks imagined the Caspian Sea as a bay of the ocean and did not know what lay to the east of it.

Having returned to his homeland, Herodotus after some time set off on a new journey - to the interior regions of the Asia Minor peninsula and to the Mesopotamian lowland. He described in great detail the city of Babylon with its high stone walls, a huge library and luxurious terraced gardens. Of the plants of Mesopotamia, he was especially interested in date palms. The population prepared bread, wine and honey from the fruits of these palm trees. Herodotus liked the ships sailing on the Tigris and Euphrates. Their round body is made of willow twigs and covered with a leather cover.

In Babylon, Herodotus learned a lot about “the most remote of the countries of the East,” which was India for the Greeks. He was told that gold was mined in huge quantities in India; there are many strange plants there: reed, from one knee of which you can supposedly make a boat (bamboo); a cereal whose grain is “cooked and eaten together with the husk” (rice); trees with fruits in the form of a ball of wool - from which the inhabitants of India make their own clothes (cotton). The Greeks of that time did not know cotton fabrics.

Herodotus spent a lot of time in Egypt. He visited cities, visited the famous pyramids and the Sphinx, and climbed up the Nile to Siena (modern Aswan). Herodotus also noted the peculiarities of the nature of Egypt: the absence of clouds and rain, the rise and flood of water in the Nile during the hottest time of the year, many animals unknown in Greece and Asia Minor (crocodiles, hippos, various fish and birds).

After Egypt, Herodotus visited the cities of Northern Libya (Africa), where he collected interesting information about the inhabitants of the northern part of the African continent and oases in the desert sandy zone. Herodotus's information about the ancient population of the Sahara is confirmed by the latest archaeological data (drawings on rocks in Tibesti, Fszzan and Oran).

In 449 BC. e. Persia was defeated by the Greeks. Athens, the Greek city-state, emerged onto the historical stage as the dominant power in the Mediterranean. The outstanding orator and politician Pericles came to power in Athens. Under him, Athens became the political and cultural center of ancient Greece. Along with other scientists, Herodotus also came to Athens. Here he read chapters from his work entitled “History”. This work contains a lot of valuable geographical information.

The great traveler of ancient Greece was Pytheas from Massilia (that was the name of the city of Marseille on the southern coast of modern France at that time). The expedition of Pytheas was organized by the traders of Massilia to find unknown countries where there was tin and amber. Pytheas not only fulfilled the orders of the merchants, but also made several geographical discoveries that glorified his name.

Pytheas' journey began in March 325 BC. e. Two fifty-oared ships left the harbor of Massilia. Their path lay to the Strait of Gibraltar, which was in the hands of the Carthaginians and was closed to the passage of foreign ships. During a thunderstorm, under the cover of a dark night, they managed to bypass the guards and go out into the Atlantic Ocean. Day and night the ships sailed and rowed to the west, trying to move as far as possible from dangerous places.

While spending the night at the mouth of a river, Pytheas, observing the ebb and flow of the tides, the first expressed the correct idea that this phenomenon is associated with the attraction of the Earth’s water shell by the Moon.

Sailing north, Pytheas reached the large Celtic city of Carbilon at the mouth of the Loire. From local residents he learned that tin comes to them from more northern countries, and from Carbilon it is sent overland to southern countries, to the shores of the Mediterranean Sea.

On the coast of the Brittany peninsula and on the island of Uxisama (modern Ouessan in Western France), Pytheas met with the Veneti and Osismi tribes. From them he learned that tin was brought from the islands in the north. One of the islands is called Albion or Britain. Next to it lie the small islands of the Cassiterides (“Tin”).

At the southwestern tip of the island (Cornwall Peninsula), he became familiar with the mining and smelting of tin. Having purchased tin, Pytheas sent one ship to Carbilon, and on the other continued sailing north along the western coast of Britain.

Pytheas was the first to observe and establish the relationship between geographic latitude and the length of day and night. The further he moved north, the longer and longer the summer day became. Off the northern coast of Britain, he noted the length of the day at 18 hours, and the night at 6 hours. From the shores of Northern Scotland, Pytheas crossed to the Orkney and Shetland Islands. From here he made his famous voyage

to the distant country of Thule, with which the inhabitants of Britain traded. From the inhabitants of Thule, Pytheas learned that to the north there are areas where the sun does not set at all in summer, and does not appear at all in winter! There, they told him, lies an ice-bound ocean and uninhabited lands...

Where could this legendary country of Thule be located? Most modern scientists believe that Thule is the Trondheimsfjord area on the western coast of Norway at 64° N. w.

In ancient times, no traveler before or after Pytheas rose to such high latitudes. Sailing along the southern shores of the North Sea, Pytheas reached the area where Germanic tribes lived, mining amber. They collected pieces of amber left by the sea on the shore at low tide. They traded this amber to the Celts for iron products. From the Celts, amber came to Massilia and other areas of the Mediterranean.

Pytheas failed to penetrate further to the east. Off the western shores of the Jutland Peninsula, he found himself in thick fog hanging over shallow water. Pytheas concluded that the human habitation area ends here. It seemed to him that here “there is no longer land, sea or air, but a mixture of all this... land, sea and in general everything hangs in the air; it is impossible to walk or sail here.”

Having exchanged iron products for amber, Pytheas set off on his way back. He left descriptions of his travels, but they have not reached us completely. We know about them from those passages that have been preserved by other ancient authors.

Malay sailors

If you superimpose a map of the Malay Archipelago, drawn on the same scale, on a map of Europe, then its islands will stretch out in a huge arc in the space from Ireland to the mouth of the Volga. This giant constellation of islands stretches on both sides of the equator - 7° north and 10° south, between Asia and Australia. Tens of thousands of islands - large, medium, small and tiny - form thousand-mile chains that stretch in long arcs towards the Philippines, New Guinea and the northern shores of the Australian mainland. Between these islands, immersed in the greenery of tropical forests, endowed with inexhaustible natural resources, fertile soils, and numerous natural harbors, lie inland seas where monsoon winds favorable for navigation blow. Through these seas - the South China, Java, Celebes, Banda, Timor - there is a through waterway from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific, from the coasts of India and Ceylon to the coasts of the Philippines, China, Korea, Japan, to New Guinea and Australia.

For the peoples inhabiting the Malay Archipelago, the sea has long been a native element. On their light boats and ships, the islanders crossed the seas and moved far to the west along the southern coast of Asia. At the beginning of our era, the Malays from the Greater Sunda Islands crossed the entire Indian Ocean from east to west and reached Madagascar.

The indigenous people of Madagascar, the Malagasy, are descended from distant Malay ancestors and speak a language of Malay origin. In the other direction - to the east - invisible threads connect with the Malays and the inhabitants of the Polynesian islands. Reliable historical information about the Malays dates back to the first centuries of our era; then the westernmost islands of the archipelago - Sumatra and Java, and a century later Kalimantan - began to be settled by settlers from South India and Bengal.

The rivers of Sumatra carry their brownish-yellow, muddy waters through impenetrable forests. The sources of the rivers lie in the west, on the slopes of the Barisan ridge. Fast mountain streams merge on a high plateau, cut by deep ravines and gorges, which borders the foothills of Barisan from the north. Between the plateau and the sea lies a low-lying marshy plain. Here rivers flow in impassable jungle - rimbe. Near the sea, wide river channels break up into countless branches and channels, making their way through a continuous wall of mangroves.

In the rimba and on the wooded plateau lived wandering tribes - Bataks, Ala, Gaju, Achin, Sakai. Not knowing how to cultivate the land, they obtained their food by hunting and collecting the fruits of wild fruit trees.

At the same time, settled Malay tribes lived in the river deltas, related to the indigenous inhabitants of the deep parts of Sumatra. They grew rice on rich, abundantly irrigated lands, harvesting two crops a year. Every piece of land had to be conquered from the virgin forest, every step in the sultry, damp-rotten rimba was worth incredible effort.

In Java, where high plains and easily traversed mountain ranges predominate, the struggle for land was not so brutal and severe. The Javanese settled not only the shores, but also the interior of the island; On the slopes of the mountains, rice fields cut into the ledges of a gigantic staircase.

On the islands at the mouths of the rivers, pockets of rich culture emerged, created by the industrious and courageous peoples of Sumatra and Java. And although much was perceived from Indian settlers, the Malay culture that grew on its native soil was distinguished by its originality.

Prosperous cities arose in Sumatra and Java, and strong and extensive states were created. In the 7th century on the shores of the Strait of Malacca there already existed a powerful maritime power, Srivijaya. Its capital was located in the lower reaches of the river. Musi, roughly where Palembang is now, is the main center of the Indonesian oil industry.

Around the capital were carefully cultivated rice fields and many villages. In 918, the Iranian historian Abu Seid Hassan wrote that “at the hour when the roosters in the city of Zabag (Srivijaya) announce the coming of day with their singing, all their brothers respond to this call at a distance of 100 or more parsangs” (parsang - about 6 km.- Ed.).

Life was in full swing on the shores of the Strait of Malacca; The Great Asian Sea Route passed through it, with which the “spice road” merged. It led from the Moluccas, Timor and Sulawesi to Srivijaya.

The countries of the southern seas were described by merchants and pilgrims, and later by Arab geographers and travelers. These works tell of ships with crews of 600, 700 and 1000 people each, led by experienced pilots; about wonderful palaces and temples, about rich rice fields and wide roads cut through the sultry rhimba. Thousands of paths led from the shores of these lands to the Asian continent and along its southern edge far to the west.

Centuries have passed. Previously mighty and vast kingdoms ceased to exist: Srivijaya disappeared; The great Javanese empire of Majapahit, which stretched in the mid-14th century from the Philippines and New Guinea to the western tip of Sumatra, collapsed.

Numerous principalities arose everywhere - fragments of former empires. Rich and powerful trading cities grew up in many principalities. These were amazing cities. Reed huts, cramped and dirty adobe houses were haphazardly stuck to huge warehouses, shipyards, and port berths. The dark, narrow alleys were teeming with brothels and taverns. On the piers, piled high with goods, people of different tribes crowded together. There were no less foreigners here than local residents. The ships were standing close to each other in the harbors.

At the hour of unloading, a furious dispute between foreign merchants and burly customs inspectors sometimes flared up on the decks. Local rulers strictly collected duties on each shipment of goods. The merchants paid, but the costs were more than compensated for: any deal could be concluded at this maritime bazaar.

But all these cities were eclipsed by Malacca - an insignificant fishing village at the beginning of the 15th century, and by the end of it - the greatest trading port, the “Venice of the Asian seas”. A small river divided the city into two unequal parts. To the south of the river, the walls of mosques and palaces were white in the green gardens.

On the north bank of the river, behind a long row of squat, dirty-white warehouses, was the business part of the city: the market, the houses of local merchants and four foreign quarters. Sometimes up to 10 thousand trade guests settled here: merchants and sailors from different Indian kingdoms, Ceylonese, Siamese, Burmese, residents of Javanese and Sumatran cities, captains of light two-masted ships from the harbors of Sulawesi, the Maluku Islands, Timor, Bali, and the Banda Islands. Iranians, Syrians, Armenians, Greeks, Egyptians and their spice trading partners, the Venetians, came to Malacca.

From the sea to the river, in a semicircle around the rich merchant quarters, stretched a wide strip of slums. Reed huts, light canopies on bamboo poles, adobe kennels, caves dug in loose reddish earth were randomly scattered among stinking heaps, ship timber warehouses, cattle pens, and dull Muslim cemeteries.

There were thirty thousand houses in Malacca. There were more than a hundred ships in its harbor. Gold-woven fabrics from Syria, opium and aromatic resins from Arabia, ivory and ebony from Africa, cotton fabrics from Gujarat and Bengal, carpets and expensive weapons from Iran were brought here. Ships from the West came to Malacca using the favorable spring monsoon. And from the southeast, from the Moluccas, merchants brought spices. Huge bales of cloves, pepper, and nutmeg were reloaded in Malacca onto local and foreign ships. Spices went to Beijing and Kyoto, Cairo and Venice. Moluccan merchants took cotton fabrics and silks to their islands.

Studying Portuguese, Malay and other written sources, we can conclude that ships left Malacca, Sumatran and Javanese cities far to the west and east long before the Portuguese appeared off the coast of India and Malacca.

The ships were built by Malay and Javanese craftsmen. One Portuguese chronicler of the early 16th century. wrote: “These junks (as the ships are called here) are much larger than our ships and similar to them. Their bow and stern are the same in shape and are equipped with rudders, and the sails are made of reed... and these ships are heavier than ours and more reliable in sailing, and the side superstructures on the bow and stern are high, so that the ship looks like a camel.” .

On these ships, Malay pilots boldly went out to the open sea. They had excellent nautical charts, which the Portuguese valued more than gold. Using these maps, Portuguese captains made “discoveries” in the seas of the Malay Archipelago. We still know little about the travels of Malayan sailors. Indonesian scientists have taken this issue seriously only in recent years.

The Journey of Marco Polo

Marco was 15 years old when his father Nicolo and uncle Mateo, rich merchants, returned to Venice from a long and distant journey. This was in 1269. They visited the Crimea, the Middle Volga, the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara, and Mongolia, the headquarters of the Mongol Khan. According to them, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Danube to the shores of the Pacific Ocean.

China was under the rule of Kublai Khan. Khan hospitably received the Polo brothers and, when they were getting ready to head back, he instructed them to deliver a letter to the Pope (the head of the Catholic Church), in which he expressed his readiness to establish diplomatic relations.

Only two years later (1271) the Polo brothers received a response letter from the pope and gifts for Kublai Khan. This time Nicolo took his 17-year-old son Marco with him. Thus began the famous 24-year journey of Marco Polo. The journey to China was long, it took about 4 years (1271-1275).

Old Khan Kublai Khan received the Polo family very cordially. The khan really liked the smart young Marco. The elder Polo, Nicolo and Mateo, were engaged in trade, and the young man carried out diplomatic assignments for the khan. He visited many areas, from coastal cities to Eastern Tibet,

The Polo family lived in a foreign land for 17 years. Kublai Khan did not let them go home for a long time. Chance helped them. Brothers Polo and Marco volunteered to accompany the Mongol and Chinese princesses who were being given as wives to the Mongol ruler of Iran, who lived in Tabriz. It was unsafe to send brides with rich gifts through the interior of Asia: there was a war going on there between the Mongol princes. The Polos decided to sail on ships.

In the spring of 1292, a fleet of fourteen four-masted ships sailed from the port of Zaitun (Quan-chow). While traveling around the eastern and southern coasts of Asia, Marco Polo learned about Japan, the islands of Indonesia (“the labyrinth of 7448 islands”), and the country of Chambo on the eastern coast of Indochina. From the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean, the ships passed through the Strait of Malacca and made a three-month stop on the shores of the island of Sumatra. After stopping on the island of Ceylon and sailing along the western coast of India, the ships entered the Persian Gulf and dropped anchor in the city of Hormuz, where the Polos visited about 22 years ago. While sailing across the Indian Ocean, Marco Polo managed to obtain some information about the African coast, Ethiopia, and the islands of Madagascar, Zanzibar and Socotra.

Having delivered the princesses to Persia, the Polo family reached the Black Sea city of Trobzon and from there returned to Venice by ship. All of Venice was amazed to learn how many treasures - precious stones - the three travelers brought from the East...

Soon a war broke out between Venice and Genoa for supremacy in trade in the Mediterranean. Marco Polo equipped the ship at his own expense and took part in the battle himself. Together with his team, he was captured and imprisoned in a Genoese prison. There, Marco Polo told prisoners about his travels to distant countries. One of the captives, the Italian writer Rusticiano, wrote down the Venetian's stories about everything he saw and heard during his wonderful journey.

Some time later, Marco Polo was released from prison and returned to Venice. He died a noble, respected man in 1324. His book interested his contemporaries. At first it circulated in many handwritten lists. It was first published in 1477 and then translated into many languages. This book introduced Europeans to the distant countries of the East, their nature, inhabitants, and culture. True, not everything in it was reliable. But the huge amount of valuable information about the East that Marco Polo collected during his travels made this work the favorite book of such outstanding navigators as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinand Magellan. For more details, see the article. Marco Polo's book played an important role in the discovery of America and the sea route to India.

Journey across three seas

Among the ancient explorers and sailors who visited distant countries, the remarkable Russian traveler, Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin, occupies an honorable place. He visited India 30 years before Vasco da Gama and penetrated into areas of the country where no European had ever been before. How did fate bring Afanasy Nikitin to the shores of the Indian Ocean?

In the fall of 1466, the ambassador of the Shirvan Khanate returned from Moscow to his homeland.

Having heard in Tver (now Kalinin) about the return of the embassy, ​​Afanasy Nikitin and other merchants decided to join the ambassador's caravan and go to Shirvan to trade. The Shirvan Khanate lay on the southwestern shores of the Caspian Sea. It included the cities of Baku, Derbent and Shemakha. The Khanate conducted large trade with many countries of the East.

Having equipped two ships, Nikitin and his comrades sailed to Nizhny Novgorod (now Gorky), where, after waiting for the ambassador, they moved down the Volga. Traveling with the embassy was more convenient and safer. The ambassador had security, he was given certificates for unhindered passage, and pilots were provided. At that

At that time, the border of the Russian state ran along the Oka and crossed the Volga just south of Nizhny Novgorod. Further on lay the lands captured by the Tatars.

Near Astrakhan, a detachment of the Tatar Khan Kasim attacked a caravan of ships. Several people were killed in the skirmish, and four Tatars were captured. The property and goods of many merchants, including Nikitin, were plundered.

The adventures didn't end there. While sailing across the Caspian Sea (it was called Khvalynsky), the ships were caught in a storm. One of the ships was thrown ashore near the city of Terka (now Makhachkala). The Russian merchants who sailed on it were captured by local residents - the Kaytaks. Afanasy Nikitin, who was on the ambassador's ship, safely reached Derbent. He spent almost a whole year in the Shirvan Khanate until he rescued his comrades from captivity. Some of those released decided to return to their homeland, others remained in Shamakhi. Myself

Nikitin went to Baku and then to Persia (Iran). He could not return to his homeland without goods and without money - he borrowed a lot of goods for trade. He could be brought to court as a debtor. Nikitin was a competent, enterprising and courageous person. He decided to try his luck in other countries. After working in the oil fields in Baku and earning some money, he moved to the southern shore of the Caspian Sea to the Persian city of Chapakur.

Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin visited India. 30 years before the Portuguese navigators Vasco da Gama penetrated areas where no European had ever been before.

Moving along the ancient caravan route, Nikitin reached Bandar-Abas on the shores of the Persian Gulf. From there he crossed to the city of Hormuz, which lies on an island at the entrance to the bay.

This city was at that time one of the richest in Asia. Trade routes from India, China, Egypt and Asia Minor crossed here. They said about Hormuz: “The world is a ring, and Hormuz is the jewel in it.”

Nikitin stayed here for a whole month. Everything amazed him: the tropical heat, the strong sultry wind, the daily ebb and flow of the sea, camels loaded with skins of fresh water, the custom of covering hot stones of the pavement with carpets and mats, and much more.

In Hormuz, Nikitin learned that purebred horses, which are very valuable there, are exported from here to India. Having bought a horse, Nikitin sailed to India on April 9, 1469. This six-week voyage across the stormy Arabian Sea was difficult and dangerous. Nikitin sailed on a small ship - a tawa, built without nails.

He landed in the Indian city of Chaul (south of modern Bombay). From here began his almost three-year wanderings around the country. Nikitin wrote down everything that interested him in his diary: about dark-skinned, long-haired residents, about the fact that rich people and “princes” dress luxuriously, and ordinary people walk almost naked; about the magnificent trips of the Sultan, accompanied by a thousand troops and 300 elephants dressed in gilded blankets; about the plight of Indian peasants, ruined by endless taxes and levies.

He himself aroused everyone's curiosity. Crowds followed him, looking with interest at his unusual clothes, white complexion, brown hair...

Afanasy Nikitin visited many cities of the Deccan Highlands. He lived in Junnar for two months. Here he saw the beginning of the summer monsoons, which brought relative coolness. Nikitin called this time of year “winter,” noting that “there is water and mud everywhere.” The rain continued, according to Nikitin, “day and night for four months.” An observant traveler noticed that the arrangement of stars in the sky in India is different than in Russia. He became friends with many Indian families. This helped him notice the peculiarities of the customs and morals of the population. He was struck by the terrible disunity between Muslims and Hindus, the division of the population into religious sects that did not recognize each other.

In Bidar, Nikitin sold his horse at a profit. One day his friends invited him to a colorful celebration of the “night of the god Shiva” in the city of Parvat. Nikitin very accurately and in detail described this holiday, which was attended by up to 100 thousand people. Nikitin saw a lot of interesting things in this city. He was especially impressed by the remarkable architectural structures created by the Indian people.

Nikitin also collected interesting information about those areas of India where he himself was not able to visit: about the large coastal city of Calicut, about the island of Ceylon, the place of mining of precious stones and the elephant market. The Russian traveler also heard about the distant countries of the East - about the country of Shabot, “where silk and pearls are born” (Indochina), about the country of Chin and Machin, from where porcelain is brought (China).

Nikitin increasingly remembers his native land. There is no country like it in the world, he exclaims. At the beginning of 1472, Nikitin set off from the seaside city of Dabula on his way back. For a whole month the storm tossed the ship. In October 1472, Nikitin reached the Black Sea city of Trobzon (Trebizond). Ahead lay the third sea that he had to cross. The first was the Caspian, or Khvalynskoe, the second was the Arabian Sea (Indian). Having agreed with the sailors, Nikitin crossed to the coast of Crimea. The ship went to Balaklava, then to Gurzuf and finished the voyage to Cafe (Feodosia). These cities were Genoese colonies at that time and conducted large trade with Russia, Poland, and Lithuania. In the Cafe Nikitin met Russian merchants. Together with them he went home. On the road, not far from Smolensk, Nikitin died at the end of 1472.

Thus ended Nikitin’s unprecedented journey “across three seas.” His fellow travelers gave the notebook with Nikitin’s notes to Moscow to the chief clerk of Ivan III, Vasily Mamyrev, who ordered their inclusion in the chronicle. “Walking across Three Seas” by Afanasy Nikitin is a remarkable geographical work of the 15th century, one of the best sources on the history of medieval India. In 1955, a monument to the brave Russian traveler was unveiled in Kalinin on the banks of the Volga.

The oldest journey on Earth

The most ancient journey known to science for certain is the expedition sent from Egypt by Queen Hatshepsut three and a half thousand years ago. An inscription on an ancient Egyptian temple tells about this expedition. “A journey by sea,” it says, “a happy sailing to the east. Safe arrival in the country of Punt to deliver wonderful things to every foreign country... This did not happen under other kings... A vast region that the Egyptians knew only by hearsay... The inhabitants of Punt knew nothing about the Egyptians... The ships are loaded to capacity wonderful products of the country of Punt: ebony and real ivory, raw gold, fragrant resin, baboons, monkeys, greyhounds, leopard skins... A journey by sea and a safe arrival and a joyful landing..."

Where was this country of Punt, the shores of which were reached by Egyptian sailors? Scientists suggest that the ancient Egyptians called Somalia, the easternmost tip of Africa, Punt. Scientists have precisely established the date of this journey - it began in the summer of 1493 BC. e. After the first trip, the connection with the country of Punt became permanent. Thus, one of the tombstone inscriptions glorifies the helmsman Khnemhotep for the fact that he sailed at least 11 times with the helmsman Khvi to the country of Punt. But then, due to the decline of ancient Egypt, travel stopped.



Each era has its own people who are not limited to the idea of ​​the world given to them. Their whole life is a search. It was thanks to such restless natures that America, Australia, New Zealand and many other points on the map were discovered. And Europe became the richest in travelers in the 15th-16th centuries - the time of colonization.

Miklouho-Maclay (1846-1888)

The future traveler and ethnographer was born in St. Petersburg into the family of an engineer. He was quickly expelled from the university for participating in the student movement. So he finished his education in Germany. From there he set off on his first trip to the Canary Islands, then to Madeira, Morocco, and the Red Sea coast. I went there as a fauna researcher, and returned as an ethnographer. He was more interested not in animals and flowers, but in people.

Miklouho-Maclay researched the indigenous populations of Southeast Asia, Australia and the Pacific Islands. Lived for several years on the northwestern coast of New Guinea, visited the islands of Oceania. Made two expeditions to the Malay Peninsula. Studying the indigenous inhabitants of these little-explored lands, the scientist came to the conclusion about the species unity and kinship of different races. He spent the last years of his life in Indonesia and Australia and even proposed a project for a Papuan Union in New Guinea. According to the researcher, he was supposed to resist the colonial invaders. One of his latest ideas is Russian artel communities in New Guinea - an ideal version of a government system.

The scientist died in his native St. Petersburg in a hospital bed; by the age of 42, numerous expeditions had completely worn out his body. Miklouho-Maclay's collections and papers - sixteen notebooks, six thick notebooks, plans, maps, his own drawings, newspaper clippings, magazine articles, diaries from different years - were transferred to the Imperial Russian Geographical Society and placed in the museum of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.

Christopher Columbus (1451 – 1506)

Christopher Columbus became a real navigator thanks to his father-in-law, the owner of one of the islands in Portugal. While studying geography, Columbus decided that the treasured India could be reached through the Atlantic Ocean. Indeed, in those days, strong Turkey blocked the routes to the East, and Europe needed a new road to this land of spices. Only the Spanish crown agreed to sponsor Columbus, and in 1492 the three caravels "Santa Maria", "Nina" and "Pinta" set out on open water. First, the ships headed for the Canary Islands, then to the west. Several times the crew demanded to return, but Columbus insisted on his own. As a result, they landed on the island of San Salvador (Guanahani). Then the islands of Juana (present-day Cuba) and Hispaniola (Haiti) were discovered. True, the traveler was sure that they were on the coast washed by the Indian Ocean. He returned to Spain in triumph, and a squadron consisting of 14 caravels and three merchant ships set off on a new journey.

But Columbus was not a scientist, but pursued completely selfish goals: to provide for his family and himself. And this affected his future fate: the indigenous population rebelled. In the colonies, where the main principle was acquisitiveness and greed, even the colonialists themselves wrote complaints to Spain about Columbus and his brother. But he did his job - he opened the Greater Antilles archipelago, the mouth of the Orinoco River, and Central America to Europe. True, until the end of my life I was sure that all this was adjacent to India.

Columbus, in illness and poverty, and even after death, did not find peace. His remains were transferred from city to city several times.

Vasco da Gama (1460 – 1524)

P was the first to travel across the ocean from Portugal to the East. The future discoverer grew up in a noble family in Portugal. He went on an expedition to the East instead of his father, a traveler, who died suddenly. In 1497 his ships left the port. Few people believed in the Portuguese's success. But he did it. Da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and headed for India. Sailors died from scurvy and in skirmishes with Muslim traders who flooded Africa. They saw the traveler as a competitor. And for good reason. Two years later, the Portuguese brought back ships of spices - one of the most expensive goods at that time.

The second expedition was also successful. Da Gama already had warships at his disposal to protect himself from ill-wishers.

The third expedition was the last for Vasco da Gama. He was appointed as the royal family's representative in India. But he did not stay in this position for so long. In 1954 he died from a serious illness.

Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)

Born in 1480 in northern Portugal. The first time he went to sea was as part of the fleet of Admiral Francisco Almeda. He took part in several expeditions before setting out on his own to find new routes to the Malay Archipelago in Indonesia. Spain supported Magellan - it sponsored a journey across the Atlantic Ocean. In 1519, five ships reached South America. The expedition made its way south along the coast of America with sweat and blood. But in 1520, a strait into the Pacific Ocean was found - later it would be called Magellanic. A year later, the traveler had already arrived at his destination - the Moluccas. But on the Philippine Islands, the traveler was drawn into a local war among the leaders, and he was killed. The return of the rest of the crew to their homeland was not easy. Only one ship out of five and 18 people out of 200 made it.

James Cook (1728-1779)

Cook was born into the family of an English farm laborer. But he made a career from a simple cabin boy to the leader of an expedition. Skill, intelligence and ingenuity were quickly appreciated. James Cook's first expedition began in 1767 on the ship Endeavor. The official version is the observation of the passage of Venus through the disk of the Sun. But in fact, colonial England needed new lands. In addition, among the tasks was the exploration of the east coast of Australia. During the voyage, Cook did not stop studying cartography and navigation. The result of the expedition was the information that New Zealand is two independent islands, and not part of an unknown continent. The scientist also compiled a map of the eastern coast of Australia and discovered the strait between Australia and New Guinea.

The results of the second expedition (1772 - 1775) became even more impressive. New Caledonia, South Georgia, Easter Island, Marquesas Islands, and Friendship Island were mapped. Cook's ship crossed the Antarctic Circle.

The third voyage took 4 years. Several others have also been explored. It was on the Hawaiian Islands, during one of the conflicts between the natives and the British, that James Cook died - a spear pierced the back of his head. But evidence that the aborigines ate Cook has not been found.

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Option 19
Beginning of the form
Part 1.
The answers to tasks 1–24 are a word, phrase, number or sequence of words, numbers. Write the answer to the right of the assignment number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.
Read the text and complete tasks 1–3.
(1) Scientists and travelers of Antiquity were attracted to distant countries no less than our contemporaries. (2)_____ did not travel idly then; there were no tourists familiar to our time. (3) The Greeks and Romans set off on a journey to make pilgrimages to holy places, take part in sports competitions, and enroll in education; merchants sought to trade in distant countries, and military leaders and soldiers sought to conquer new lands.
1
1
Which of the following sentences correctly conveys the MAIN information contained in the text?
1. Ancient merchants sought to trade in distant countries, and military leaders and soldiers sought to conquer new lands.
2. Travelers of Antiquity set out on a journey to make a pilgrimage to holy places.
3. Ancient Greek and Roman travelers were attracted to distant countries not by idle wanderings, but by the opportunity to take part in sports competitions, trade, and conquer new lands.
4. In ancient times, there were no tourists as usual to our time.
5. The opportunity to take part in sports competitions, conquer new lands, and trade, rather than idle wanderings, attracted ancient Greek and Roman travelers to distant countries.
2
2
Which of the following words (combinations of words) should appear in the gap in the second (2) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).
1. Since
2. However
3. Fortunately,
4. It seems
5. Apparently
3
3
Read a fragment of a dictionary entry that gives the meaning of the word EARTH. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the third (3) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.
EARTH, -i, wine. land, plural lands, lands, lands,
1. (in the terminological meaning, 3 is capitalized). The third planet from the Sun in the Solar System, rotating around the Sun and around its own axis. 3. - planet of people.
2. Land as opposed to water or air. On the ship they saw land. Big z. (the mainland or the shore of the mainland in the speech of sailors, island residents).
3. Soil, the upper layer of the crust of our planet, surface. Land cultivation. Sit on the ground. To get (get) something out of the ground.
4. A loose dark brown substance that is part of the crust of our planet. 3. with sand and clay.
5. Country, state, and also some kind in general. large area of ​​the Earth (high). Native z. Russian z. Foreign lands.
6. A territory with land located in someone’s territory. possession, use. Ownership of land. Land lease.
4
4
In one of the words below, an error was made in the placement of stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel sound was highlighted incorrectly. Write this word down.
lieAlacrapeWillowencouragementBe on the moveSeekexpert5
5
One of the sentences below uses the highlighted word incorrectly. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.
1. All GREAT people have their little weaknesses.
2. The OUTGOING document must be assigned a number upon registration.
3. Alexander Mikhailovich Opekushin came from the common people, first a self-taught person, then a RECOGNIZED artist.
4. The discovery turned out to be SUCCESSFUL, and primarily because it largely determined the uniqueness of this pictorial system.
5. Some MICROSCOPIC bacteria glow, but this is not their most remarkable property.
6
6
In one of the words highlighted below, an error was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.
KITCHEN furniture
came running FROM THE DISCO
SMARTER than everyone else
FASHIONABLE COUTURE lucrative CONTRACTS
7
7
Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
GRAMMAR ERRORS SENTENCES
A) violation of the type-temporal correlation of verb forms 1) Blue bitter smoke spreads down the river, rustling the foliage of old poplars.
B) an error in constructing a sentence with homogeneous members 2) More than eight minutes are needed for sunlight to reach the Earth. C) a violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate 3) The old man threw fresh wood chips into the fire and runs his finger along the edge of the ax.
D) violation in the construction of a sentence with an inconsistent application 4) At the last competition, the Zhiguli car came first.
E) incorrect use of the case form of a noun with a preposition 5) The magazine “Smene” reports on the most striking literary discoveries of the year.
6) Children rarely listen to and follow the advice of their parents.
7) Viktor Astafiev calls the story “The Last Bow” his best book.
8) Society is concerned about the problem of extinction of large animals: elephants, tigers and others.
9) According to scientists, there are now about six hundred active volcanoes on Earth.
Write your answer in numbers without spaces or other symbols
8
8
Identify the word in which the unstressed alternating vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.
emphasize...replace...begin to consolidate...emphasize...edge...9
9
Identify the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write out these words by inserting the missing letter.
in... produce, be... pitiless
on...cracked, on...jump
pass...overcome, adventure
post...infectious, inactive...and...worn, not...falling
10
10
Write down the word in which the letter O is written in the blank.
embarrassed...experienced...gross...
nevermind...might...vka11
11
Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.
pull out...flow...we cut...full...less...my12
12
Indicate all the numbers in whose place the letter I is written.
No matter how much you (1) look at the sea, you will (2) never (3) get tired of it: it is always different, new, never (4) seen.
13
13
Determine the sentence in which both highlighted words are written CONTINUOUSLY. Open the brackets and write down these two words.
1. (B) AT THE BEGINNING OF this month, dad and grandfather moved to a new apartment, and the cat Styopka was also moved there.
2. Apparently, they stopped (behind) THAT house to rest a little.
3. The (NORTH) EAST wind was blowing, and the sky was (STILL) overcast.
4. (IN) SOON the sun completely disappeared behind a sharp ridge, and immediately (FROM) THERE a fan of bright red rays flew into the sky.
5. These places, known to the hunter only (BY) HEARING, (BY) RIGHT can count on wide popularity.
14
14
Indicate all the numbers replaced by one letter N.
The Meshchera boats are hollowed out (1) from one piece of wood, only on the bow and stern they are forged (2) with forged (3) nails with large heads.
15
15
Place punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma.
1. In forests I love rivers with black water and yellow flowers on the banks.
2. He wanted to go with me to meet you, but for some reason he changed his mind.
3. In the living and swaying lace of leaves, the blue of the autumn sky tangles and trembles.
4. Avdiy tried to imagine the former oriental bazaars in India, Afghanistan or Turkey.
5. With a dull noise, rain streams spin underfoot and fall on heads and shoulders from rocks and trees.
16
16

Old steamships (1) coming from different countries (2) dozed at the wooden piers (3) quietly snoring steam.
17
17
Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers that should be replaced by commas in the sentences.
The water (1) seemed (2) to be a huge wavy mirror reflecting invisible light, and (3) maybe (4) it really was.
18
18
Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers that should be replaced by commas in the sentence.
It seemed to me (1) that by some miracle I had come from the twentieth century to the time of Ivan Kalita (2) and that (3) if you get off the ship (4) you would immediately disappear.
19
19
Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers that should be replaced by commas in the sentence.
With wide open eyes, he looked at the endless panorama of the shores (1) and it seemed to him (2) that he was moving along a wide silver path to those wonderful kingdoms (3) where sorcerers (4) and heroes of fairy tales live.
Read the text and complete tasks 20-25.
STRAIGHTENED
(1) Without a goal and without the slightest definite desire to walk along this or that street, I once walked dozens of miles across Paris, carrying in my soul a load of something bitter and terrible, and quite unexpectedly I made it to the Louvre. (2) Without the slightest moral need, I entered the museum, mechanically walked back and forth, mechanically looked at an ancient sculpture, about which I understood absolutely nothing, and felt only fatigue and tinnitus - and suddenly, in complete bewilderment, without knowing why, struck by something extraordinary, incomprehensible, he stopped in front of the Venus de Milo.
(3) I stood in front of her. looked at her and constantly asked himself: (4) “What happened to me?” (5) I asked myself this from the first moment, as soon as I saw the statue, because from that very moment I felt that great joy had happened to me... (6) Until now I was like (I suddenly felt this way) here on this glove crumpled in his hand. (7) Does it look like a human hand? (8) No, it’s just some kind of lump of leather. (9) But then I blew into it, and it became like a human hand. (10) Something that I could not understand blew into the depths of my crumpled, crippled, exhausted being and straightened me, ran through the goosebumps of a reviving body where, it seemed, there was no longer sensitivity, made everything “crunch” just like that, when a person grows, it also made him wake up vigorously, without even feeling any signs of recent sleep, and filled the expanded chest and the entire grown body with freshness and light.
(11) I looked at this stone riddle with both eyes, wondering why it happened like this? (12) What is this? (13) Where and what is the secret of this firm, calm, joyful state of my entire being, which, unknown how, poured into me? (14) And he absolutely could not answer a single question for himself; I felt that there was no word in the human language that could define the life-giving mystery of this stone creature. (15) But I did not doubt for a minute that the watchman, the interpreter of the Louvre miracles, was telling the absolute truth, claiming that it was on this narrow sofa, upholstered in red velvet, that Heine came to sit, that here he sat for hours and cried. (16) From that day on, I felt not just a need, but a direct necessity, the inevitability of the most, so to speak, impeccable behavior: to say something that is not what one should, even if only in order not to offend a person, to keep silent about something something bad, having hidden it within oneself, to say an empty, meaningless phrase solely out of decency has now, from this memorable day, become unthinkable. (17) This meant losing the happiness of feeling like a human being, which had become familiar to me and which I did not dare want to diminish even by a hair. (18) Treasuring my spiritual joy, I did not dare to go to the Louvre often and went there only if I felt that I could accept the life-giving secret into myself with a clear conscience. (19) Usually on such days I woke up early, left the house without talking to anyone and entered the Louvre first, when no one was there yet. (20) And then I was so afraid of losing, due to some accident, the ability to fully feel what I felt here, that at the slightest mental inconsistency I did not dare to come close to the statue, but if you come, look from afar, you will see that it is here, the same one, you say to yourself: (21) “Well, thank God, you can still live in this world!” - and you will leave. (22) And yet I could not determine what the secret of this work of art is and what exactly, what features, what lines life-giving, straighten and expand the crumpled human soul. (23) In fact, whenever I felt an irresistible need to straighten my soul and go to the Louvre to see if everything was fine there, I never understood so clearly how bad, bad and bitter it is for a person to live in this world right now. (24) No smart book depicting modern human society gives me the opportunity to understand so strongly, so concisely and, moreover, absolutely clearly, the grief of the human soul, the grief of all human society, all human orders, as just one glance at this stone riddle. (25) And I thought about all this thanks to the stone riddle, it straightened out the human soul in me, crumpled by the present life, introduced me, I don’t know how or in what way, to the joy and breadth of this feeling.
(26) The artist took what was needed for him, both in male and female beauty, catching only the human in all this; from this diverse material he created that truth in man that exists in every human being, which at the present time resembles a crumpled glove, and not a straightened one.
(27) And the thought of when, how, in what way the human being will be straightened to the limits that the stone riddle promises, without resolving the question, nevertheless draws in your imagination endless prospects for human improvement, human future and gives rise to a living grief over the imperfections of modern man. (28) The artist has created for you a model of a human being. (29) And your thought, sad about the endless “vale” of the present, cannot help but be carried away by a dream into some infinitely bright future. (30) And the desire to straighten, to free the crippled present person for this bright future, which does not even have definite outlines, joyfully arises in the soul.
(According to G. Uspensky *)
Gleb Ivanovich Uspensky (1843-1902) - Russian writer. He began his literary activity in the summer of 1862 in L. N. Tolstoy’s pedagogical magazine “Yasnaya Payana”. Uspensky’s first works, a series of essays “Morals of Rasteryaeva Street (1866) and “Ruin” (1869), were devoted to depicting the life of the urban poor. In 1868-1884. Uspensky constantly collaborated with the journal Otechestvennye zapiski. In 1871, Uspensky went abroad, visited Germany and France. He traveled a lot throughout Russia (to the Caucasus, Siberia), collecting material for his works.
20
20
Which statements contradict the content of the text? Please provide answer numbers.
1. The hero stood for a long time at the statue of Venus de Milo, as he was a great connoisseur of ancient sculpture.
2. The hero could not understand what the secret of the statue was that caused his transformation.
3. The hero often went to the Louvre to look at the Venus de Milo.
4. According to the watchman, Heinrich Heine sat for hours in front of the statue of Venus de Milo and cried.
5. Contemplation of the Venus de Milo awakens in the hero not only joy, but also sorrow over the imperfection of the present person.
21
21
Which of the following statements are incorrect? Please provide answer numbers.
1. Sentences 1-3 present the narrative.
2. Proposition 14 contains the answer to the questions formulated in sentences 11-13.
3. Sentence 17 gives the reason for what is said in sentence 16.
4. Sentences 27-30 present the reasoning.
5. Sentences 23-24 provide a description.
22
22
Write out the phraseological unit from sentences 18-19.
23
23
Among sentences 21-26, find one that is connected to the previous one using a coordinating conjunction, attributive and demonstrative pronouns, as well as lexical repetition. Write the number of this offer.
Read a fragment of a review based on the text that you analyzed while completing tasks 20-23. This fragment examines the linguistic features of the text. Some terms used in the review are missing. Insert into the blanks (A, B, C, D) the numbers corresponding to the number of the term from the list. Write down the corresponding number in the table under each letter. Write down the sequence of numbers in ANSWER FORM No. 1 to the right of task number 24, starting from the first cell, without spaces, commas or other additional characters. Write each number in accordance with the samples given in the form.
24
24
“In the essay “Straightened,” Gleb Uspensky reflects on the mysterious power of art. The transformation that occurred with the hero under the influence of the Venus de Milo is depicted by the author using such lexical means as (A) _____ (“something... blew into the depths of my... being and straightened me” in sentence 10), as well as syntactic means: (B) ____ (“need, necessity, inevitability” in sentence 16) and (C) ____ (sentences 4,21). With the help of (D) ____ (sentences 11, 12, 13), the writer builds a text-reasoning, inviting readers to jointly think about the problem.”
List of terms:
1) metaphor
2) litotes
3) hyperbole
4) synonyms
5) gradation
6) parcellation
7) rhetorical appeal
8) direct speech
9) interrogative sentences
Part 2.
Write an essay based on the text you read.

25
Show a fragment of a journalistic article.

Formulate one of the problems posed by the author of the text.
Comment on the formulated problem. Include in your comment two illustrative examples from the text you read that you think are important for understanding the problem in the source text (avoid excessive quoting).
Formulate the position of the author (storyteller). Write whether you agree or disagree with the point of view of the author of the text you read. Explain why. Argue your opinion, relying primarily on the reader’s experience, as well as on knowledge and life observations, the first two arguments are taken into account). The volume of the essay is at least 150 words.
Work written without reference to the text read (not based on this text) is not graded. If the essay is a retelling or completely rewritten of the original text without any comments, then such work is scored zero points.
Write an essay carefully, legible handwriting.
1 35
2 however
3 5
4 lied
5 lucky or lucky
6 discos7 36259
8th declension
9 cracked bounce 10 canvas
11 let's fill
12 12
13 soon from there14 123
15 24
16 123
17 34
18 14
19 123
20 13
21 25
22 in good conscience23 25
24 1589

Beginning of the form
Approximate range of problems Author's position
The problem of the impact of a work of art on a person. (How does true art influence a person?) The power of art can transform a person. The statue of Venus de Milo became for the hero a kind of measure of physical and spiritual beauty. The contemplation of this work of art awakens in the hero not only joy from the sight of beauty, but also grief over human imperfection.
End of form