Arab travelers of the Middle Ages Suleiman merchant Suleiman. Arab travelers and pilgrims Arab travelers and scholars of the Middle Ages

6. Scientific expeditions and geographical discoveries of Russian travelers in the 18th century In the 18th century, Russians continued to explore the Arctic, Siberia, the Amur region, the coast and islands of the Pacific Ocean. The Russian people have primacy in the great geographical discoveries in

G. S. Kurganov and P. M. Kurennov SECRETS OF THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND THE FUTURE OF RUSSIA (Secrets of world politics) As for Russia, it all comes down to 20 million Masonic soldiers. (G.S. Kurganov). Even before the Second World War, G.S. Kurganov said: “Either I will go to bed alive, or I will find out

The emergence of Islam and the Arab conquests to the West and East caused the formation of the Arab Caliphate, from the very first centuries of its existence, travel became very active.

This is due to the requirement of Islam to visit Mecca once in a lifetime and to trade along land routes that connected the distant parts of the caliphate, slowly spreading to central Africa, northeastern Europe, and Southeast Asia.

In the 9th century, Arabs began to become acquainted with Ptolemy's works on Geography and other ancient Greek sources. By studying and processing them, the Arabs form their own descriptive geography, which covers all of Europe, except for the far north, East and North Africa, and southern Asia.

In the 10th century, the most famous Arab cartographer was Abul Hassan Ali al-Masudi, who spent his entire youth traveling, visiting Palestine, Syria, Ceylon, India, Madagascar, Zanzibar, Oman, the South China Sea and Asia Minor.

Arab merchants sailed the seas of Europe, except perhaps the northern ones, and explored the south and center of Asia, and the east of Europe. They appeared in sub-Saharan Africa and crossed the equator. Japan appeared on Arab maps in the 11th century, but rather according to the stories of other travelers, since the Arabs did not reach Japan by sea. But this data was later very useful to the Portuguese.

The Arabs, thanks to active trade, gave the world many travelers from the 9th to the 14th centuries. The most famous of them is the 14th century geographer merchant Ibn Battuta, the author of the book “The Travels of Ibn Battuta,” which has been translated into many European languages ​​and contains a large amount of ethno- and historical-geographical material.

It should be noted that later, in the 15th century, Europeans used this valuable and fairly accurate cartographic data. Thanks to Arab travelers, Europe received very valuable and, most importantly, reliable information about countries such as China, Indonesia, Indochina - Bangladesh, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam .

The geographical horizons of the Arabs who appeared on the historical arena of Western Asia were even broader. The Arabs can be considered one of the most traveling peoples of that time. As a result, the image of a “man traveling” becomes popular in Eastern literature, from the 7th century. Arab tribes living on the Arabian Peninsula acquired a new religion - Islam. The founder of the new religion, Mohammed (c. 570-632), was forced to flee from Mecca to the neighboring city of Medina. This event - the hijra (in Arabic "migration") took place on June 16, 622. This date will be the beginning of a new era, and the Muslim calendar begins from it. After the death of the prophet, the leaders of Muslim communities receive the title caliph, i.e. "deputy", "vicar".

The first caliphs were the closest associates of Mohammed, who completed the unification of Arabia, laying the foundations of the gigantic empire of the Caliphate Arabs. The geography of the Arab military campaigns extended throughout almost the entire Mediterranean, covering the African coast and the territory of Western Europe. The conquest of Spain in 714 by the Moors led to an increase in the influence of Arab culture.

Not only conquests, but also the development of trade are associated with the Arab East. In the 9th-10th centuries. Arab merchants could be found on the land roads of the East, North Africa and the Mediterranean coast. The ships of Arab traders sailed through all the seas of Europe in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Of the Arab travelers to Western Asia, the most famous are Suleiman from Basra (V)II century), who traveled to China, visiting Ceylon and Sumatra, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. His notes describe many amazing adventures on the sea and islands inhabited by cannibals.

In the X-XI centuries. travelers significantly expanded the geography of their travels. The Arab writer Ibn Dasta, who lived in Persia, made a long journey, as a result of which the historical and geographical encyclopedia of his time, “The Book of Precious Treasures,” appeared, which contained interesting information about the country of the Eastern Slavs.

Of the most famous Arab travelers of the 10th century. can be called al-Masudi from Baghdad, who left books about his journey “Golden Belts and Placers of Jewels” and “Messages and Observations”, in which he described all the countries of the Near and Middle East, Central Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern Europe. Northern and Eastern Africa The Khorezm scholar Biruni (924-1048) traveled a lot, and summarized the materials he collected about Indian culture in his own and the “Canon of Masud.”

Travel was so common that the great physician, a native of a small village near Bukhara, Abu Ali Ibn Sina (c. 980-1037), whom Europeans called Avicenna, devoted a special chapter to the regime of travelers in his “Medical Canon.” This treatise contains seven paragraphs, where the outstanding healer gives recommendations on diet, health prevention and assistance to travelers in different climatic zones, as well as advice for those traveling by sea.

In the 12th century. the famous Arab traveler al-Idrisi was invited by the Sicilian king to Palermo to compile geographical maps. In 1154, his book “Geographical Entertainments” appeared, in which, in addition to regional information, Ptolemy’s idea was tested. Moreover, the result of his many years of work were world maps, circular and rectangular, on 70 sheets.

Undoubtedly, the most famous Arab traveler is Abu Abdallah Ibn Battuta from Tangier (Morocco), who in the 14th century. visited almost all countries of what was then Asia. I became acquainted with the northern coast of the African continent and the Nile Valley. During his second journey, he crossed the Sahara in different directions. In his further travels, Ibn Battuta visited the Crimea, visited the lower reaches of the Volga, and visited Central Asia. He lived in India for a few years, then he passed through Hindustan to the south, visited the Maldives, Ceylon and arrived by sea in China. Having covered more than 130,000 km by land and sea, he returned home and dictated a book called A Gift to Those Contemplating the Curiosities of Cities and the Wonders of Travel, better known as Ibn Batuta's Travels. The book about his 25-year travels, which contained a lot of historical, geographical and ethnographic material, was translated into several European languages ​​and became a valuable guide to medieval regional studies.

The aggressive campaigns of the Arabs, the development of trade lead to the rapid spread of Islam. All Muslims are required at least once in their lives to make a pilgrimage to Mecca - a city sacred to all representatives of this religion. From that time to the present day, streams of Muslim pilgrims rush to Mecca. The main goal of the pilgrimage to Mecca is to go around the Kaaba 7 times and touch the black stone. The Kaaba is located on a holy place - Al-Harram, which is now the largest open-air temple. The second most important holy city for Muslims is Medina, or the City of the Prophet, in which the tomb of the Prophet Mohammed is located.

There are also sacred places for Muslims in ancient Jerusalem. This is the city where the prophet Mohammed was during his legendary night journey from Mecca to distant mosques. In the Muslim quarter is located Haram el-Sherif (sacred courtyard) with the shrines of Islam. These are the famous mosques of Omar and Al-Aqsa, the Mosque of the Rock was built in 691, at the behest of Caliph Omar, hence its second name. Two years later, on the site of the Christian basilica, the Al-Aqsa Mosque was built, in the northern wing of which there is a place - Maqom Aziz, where, according to legend, the prophet Mohammed ascended to heaven from Jerusalem.

9.4. Jerusalem - center of pilgrimage

Pilgrims of different faiths flock to Jerusalem. The history of the city goes back 4 thousand years. At this place, King David created the capital of his state. In the tenth century BC. King Solomon, the son of David, built the First Temple here, the ruins of the wall of which - the Wailing Wall - from the 5th century. are a place of pilgrimage for representatives of Judaism. In the VI century. BC e. The Second Temple was built. The beauty of this majestic structure was described by the ancient historian Josephus Flavius, who compared it to a sparkling mountain peak. The second temple was destroyed in the 1st century. AD but the time of the Jewish war. The magnificence of this building can be imagined using the exact model of the Second Temple, which was created in the 60s. XX century on a scale of 1:50 and is now on display on the territory of one of the hotels. For Jews, Jerusalem is the Promised Land. The Jewish Quarter is still located here. with famous synagogues.

The lands of ancient Palestine are a sacred place of worship for Christians around the world. The first destination for pilgrims is Bethlehem, the small city where Jesus was born. Pilgrims flock to worship the holy places in Bethlehem, the city where Jesus Christ was born and where a basilica was built over several caves in 325, and later, during the reign of Emperor Justinian in the 6th century. The Church of the Nativity of Christ was erected, located in the very center of the city. A large number of sacred places for Christians are located in Jerusalem itself, the city that became the site of the execution and resurrection of Jesus Christ. In the 4th century. The Byzantine Emperor Constantine ordered the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher on the ruins of a Roman pagan temple, for at this place, according to legend, Jesus Christ was crucified, buried and then resurrected. Veneration of the Holy Sepulcher is the most important goal of Christian pilgrimage. Christian believers try to follow in the footsteps of Jesus Christ to Calvary. Pilgrims have been following this route since the 4th century. AD

Throughout its history, this city was repeatedly attacked by the troops of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar and Muslim conquerors; in the Middle Ages, crusading armies rushed here from Europe.

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§ 4. Campaigns and travels of the Middle Ages

The beginning of the Middle Ages was marked by the “great migration of peoples.” The northern European peoples also began to move on an extraordinary scale. The Roman Empire tried to regulate this process. Treaties were concluded with some peoples, allowing them to settle on the territory of the empire, where state-owned lands or lands seized from large estates were allocated for them. These were the Burgundians and Visigoths. The Roman Empire is learning more and more about the barbarians living near its borders. In the works of Theophanes “Chronography”, Mauritius “Strategikon”, Jordan “On the origin and deeds of the Getae” descriptions of the life of the Slavic peoples appear.

In the early Middle Ages, regular road traffic existed thanks to Roman roads. From the 4th century they begin to be restored, and they acquire a “second life”. In Central Europe, the first national road was built between Mainz and Koblenz. The whole of Central Europe was crossed by a dirt road - the “Vindobona Arrow” - from the Baltic States to Vindobona (Vienna). Amber was delivered along it. The best roads in the Byzantine Empire were in the Balkans.

Pilgrimage became widespread in the Middle Ages. The patrons of pilgrims in the Middle Ages were the Magi: Balthazar, Melchior and Caspar, who made a journey to worship the Infant Jesus. They began to be revered by Christians from the 2nd century.

The pilgrims' journeys to Palestine began already in the 3rd - 4th centuries. Under Emperor Constantine, churches were built in, in particular the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Constantine’s mother, Queen Helena, undertook a journey to Jerusalem, where she contributed to the discovery of the “Tree of the Holy Cross” in one of the caves, not far from Golgotha. The names of such famous pilgrims as St. Porphyry, who later became Bishop of Gaza; Eusebius of Cremona; St. Jerome, who studied the Holy Scriptures of the Apostle Paul in Bethlehem; Jerome's daughter Eustachia from the famous Gracchi family, who is buried not far from the birthplace of Jesus Christ.

As Christianity spread, more and more people wanted to visit Palestine in Europe. In the 4th century. pilgrimage to the Holy Land has become such a widespread phenomenon that even among the pilgrims themselves it has often begun to be perceived simply as “foreign tourism.” Already in the 5th century. for pilgrims coming from Gaul, a route, or road guide, was drawn up, which served as their guide from the banks of the Rhone and Dordogne to the Jordan River. In the VI century. from Piacenza made a journey to the Holy Land of St. Antonin with a large number of his admirers. After this trip, another road book would have been compiled - “Piacensky Road Book”, the Holy Land would have been described in detail.

But in the 7th century. Under Caliph Omar, an event occurred that for Christians is considered the greatest disaster since the birth of Christ. The holy city of Jerusalem was captured by Muslims. Passions still do not subside in this long-suffering land.

However, even under these conditions, pilgrimages to holy places continued. The most favorable conditions for pilgrimage developed during the reign of the caliph from the Abassid dynasty - Harun al-Rashid (786 - 809). A relationship full of mutual respect was established between him and Emperor Charlemagne (768 - 814). He sent Charlemagne the keys to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. At this time, in Jerusalem, by order of Charlemagne, a special hospice house for pilgrims was built.

Beginning in the 9th century, pilgrimage began to be imposed in the form of public punishment and a means of atonement. And in the 11th century. The Catholic Church replaced church repentance with pilgrimage.

Thus, pilgrimage is one of the aspects of the internal motivation of tourism and is close to the most natural feelings of a person, coupled with a religious impulse. The pilgrims held St. in great honor. Hilary in Poitiers, St. Martial in Limoges, St. Sernin in Toulouse, St. Denis in Paris, St. Remy in Reims, St. Martin in Type, which people went to worship from 200 km or more away. Over time, the tombs of bishops become objects of worship for pilgrims. The pilgrimage of the founder of the Frankish state Clovis to the monastery of Saint-Martin in Type in 498 is known.

“Local” pilgrimage centers include Gargano, famous for the miracles of St. Michael, or Cassino, famous St. Benedict. There were also shrines on the Iberian Peninsula, occupied by the Moors, where pilgrims from Europe also went. The French king Robert traveled to Rome to venerate the relics of St. Peter and Paul. One of the Christian shrines located in Galicia was the tomb of St. James.

Pilgrimage gave rise to another type of travel - travel for missionary purposes. One of the first missionaries to spread Christianity back in the 4th century. in European countries, there was Martin of Tours. Having begun his preaching work in the regions of northwestern Gaul, he then went to Britain. There his work was so successful that many Britons, having become Christians, in turn took up missionary work. They spread Christianity to Ireland and further, all the way to Iceland.

In the IV – VIII centuries. The Irish Church occupied a leading position in Europe in terms of culture. Many of the Irish monks became the main preachers of Christianity. The most famous of them is St. Columbanus, who lived at the turn of the 6th – 7th centuries. He knew the works of Virgil and Horace, read Seneca and Juvenal, but his main desire was to “wander for Christ.” Like Christ, he set out on the journey with twelve fellow monks. The first monastery was created by him in 575 in the desert Vosges. As a missionary he traveled throughout Gaul, Alemannia and Lombardy, founding monasteries. The most famous and large cultural center is the monastery near Genoa - Bobbio.

Another example of missionary activity is the wanderings of St. Amanda, a contemporary of Columbanus.

Following the monks, merchants entered the Middle East. The most famous of them was the Alexandrian merchant Cosmas. In the VI century. he visited Ethiopia, India and Western Asia, for which he received the nickname Indocoplos, i.e. "sailor to India" After his return, he wrote the essay “The Christian Topography of the Universe.” Cosmas put the authority of the Bible in the first place, trying to reconcile the data of physical geoscience with the content of the Holy Scriptures.

Along with missionaries and merchants, journeys were made by pilgrims (wandering monks), who moved from one monastery to another. They were accepted everywhere and, instead of paying for their accommodation, they were asked to pray for their hosts. The pilgrims also went to Egypt, where they wandered through the deserts near ancient Memphis, “joining” the life of the famous desert dwellers - Paul and Anthony. But, of course, my deepest desire was to visit Jerusalem.

There were so many pilgrims that in the second half of the 8th century. Guidebooks (itenerariums) were created specifically for them. The earliest of them is “The Tale of Epiphanius Hagiopolite about Syria and the Holy City.” In the 12th century. Byzantine pilgrim John Phocas compiled another itinerary entitled “A brief history of cities and countries from Antioch to Jerusalem, as well as Syria, Phenicia and the holy places of Palestine.” It describes Beirut, Silon, Tire and Nazareth, and describes Christian shrines in the Jordan Valley and near the Dead Sea. John Phocas also visited Bethlehem, Caesarea in Palestine, and from there he sailed to his place of residence - the island of Crete.

But, despite the developed system of pilgrimage and missionary work in Europe, the dominant position in the field of travel and discovery of the Middle Ages belonged to Arab travelers.

In the 7th century AD The Arabs living on the Arabian Peninsula conquered a vast territory. In the east - the Iranian Highlands and Turkestan, to the north of Arabia - Mesopotamia, the Armenian Highlands and part of the Caucasus, in the northwest - Syria and Palestine, in the west - all of North Africa. In 711, the Arabs crossed Gibraltar and conquered almost the entire Iberian Peninsula.

Thus, by the 8th century. The Arabs controlled the western, eastern and southern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, the entire coast of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, as well as the northern coast of the Arabian Sea. They also owned the most important land roads connecting Europe with Asia and China.

One of the first Arab travelers was a merchant from Basra, Su-leyman. In 851 he traveled from the Persian Gulf across the Indian Ocean to China. Along the way, he visited Ceylon, Sumatra, the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. During the trip, Suleiman kept notes. Subsequently, these records were supplemented by the Arab geographer Abu-Zeid-Ghassan and have been preserved in this form to this day.

At the beginning of the 10th century. Persian writer Ibn-Dast traveled through Western Asia and Eastern Europe. He outlined the results of his wanderings in the historical and geographical encyclopedia “The Book of Precious Treasures.” In it he mentions the Slavs, describes their way of life, morals, and customs. Ahmed Ibn Fodlan wrote about the Slavs and ancient Russians in his book “Journey to the Volga”. He, as part of the embassy of the Baghdad caliph Muktadir, went to the Volga Bulgars with the aim of strengthening them in the Islamic faith. The embassy passed through the Iranian plateau and Bukhara to Khorezm, crossed the Ustyug plateau, the Caspian lowland and reached the middle Volga near the mouth of the Kama. Ibn Fodlan testifies that he saw many Russian merchants there. This suggests that by that time the trade routes of Russian merchants ran far to the east.

Of the travelers of the first half of the 10th century. we can note the Baghdad historian and geographer Massoudi. Two of his books have reached us: Golden Meadows and Diamond Placers and Messages and Observations. He visited all the countries of the Near and Middle East, Central Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern Europe, and in the south - East Africa to Madagascar.

In the middle of the 10th century. The Arab writer Istakhri traveled through the countries of the Middle East, Central Asia and India, who, based on personal observations and literary materials, wrote the “Book of Climates”. Having visited all Muslim countries, another Arab traveler Ibn-Haukal supplemented Istakhri’s work by writing the book “Paths and Kingdoms.” A follower of Istakhri was also the Palestinian Arab Muqaddasi (in another version Mandisi), who wandered for 20 years throughout Asia and North Africa.

Famous traveler in the 10th century. there was a Khorezm scientist-encyclopedist and poet Abu-Reyhan Biruni (973 - 1048). During his forced wanderings, he explored the Iranian plateau and parts of Central Asia. Not of his own free will, he had to accompany the conqueror of Khorezm, the Afghan Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, during his campaign against Punjab. Biruni collected materials on Indian culture and used them as the basis for his great work on India, which he called “The Canon of Massula”. Biruni also wrote books: “History of India”, “Mineralogy”, “Monuments of Past Generations”. In his book “The Key to Astronomy,” Biruni criticized the opinion of the immobility of the Earth and suggested the heliocentric structure of the world. He pointed out the gradual emergence of different layers of the earth's surface.

An outstanding Arab scientist was Idrisi (1100 – 1166). He visited Asia Minor, England, France, Spain, and received his education in Cordoba. Idrisi was invited by the Sicilian King Roger II to Palermo to compile geographical maps. For 15 years, Idrisi was processing the information delivered to him. The result of the work was two large essays. The first, “Entertainment of a weary man in a wandering through the regions,” better known as “Roger's Book,” is equipped with 70 maps. The second - “The Garden of Affection and Entertainment of the Soul” - was equipped with 73 cards. Under the leadership of Idrisi, a model of the firmament was built in Palermo, as well as an earth disk with images of the seven climates of the Earth printed on it. But all this was destroyed in 1160 during riots.

In the 13th century the maps compiled by Idrisi were corrected and supplemented by the Arab traveler Ibn al Wardi, who wrote the book “The Pearl of Wonders”.

In the 13th century all the geographical knowledge of Arab travelers was summarized in the multi-volume “Geographical Dictionary” created by the Byzantine Greek, a Muslim by religion, Yakut. He used not only materials from Arab authors, but also from Byzantine Christian writers. For many years he lived in Old Merv and worked in the libraries of this medieval cultural and scientific center.

The most outstanding Arab traveler of the 14th century. There was a traveling merchant Ibn Battuta (1304 - 1377). In 1325 he traveled from his hometown of Tangier to Alexandria. He then climbed up the Nile to the first cataract, visiting Syria, Palestine, Western Arabia and Iraq. Then he visited Mecca and went by coast to the south of Yemen, and from there by sea to the Mozambique region. On his way back, Ibn Battuta reached Hormuz by sea through Zanzibar, visited the Bahrain Islands and Southern Iran, and then returned to Egypt. From Egypt, through Syria and Asia Minor, he walked to the city of Sinop on the Black Sea, swam to the southern coast of the Crimea, and from there headed to the capital of the Golden Horde, Sarai-Berke, located in the lower reaches of the Volga, on the upper Akhtuba. Then the traveler went north to the city of Bolgar. Returning to Saray-Berke, Ibn Battuta accompanied the Tatar embassy to Constantinople. From Constantinople, Ibn Bat-tut, through the Caspian lowland and the desert plateau, Ustyug reached the city of Urgench, and from there to Bukhara. He visited Samarkand, then turned south, crossed the Amu Darya, overcame the Hindu Kush and entered the middle Indus valley. There he reached through Punjab. Ibn Battuta lived in India for several years as an official of the Delhi Sultan. In 1342 he was sent by the Sultan to China, but on his way to (South India) he was robbed. Left without a livelihood, he was forced to enter the service of the Muslim ruler of the Maldives. Having obtained funds, Ibn Battuta arrived in Ceylon, from there he went by sea to China, and visited Beijing. Then he sailed again to Ceylon, from there through Malabar, Arabia, Syria and Egypt in 1349 he returned to Tangier.

Having finished his travels, Ibn Battuta dictated descriptions of his travels. Over 25 years of travel, he covered about 120 thousand km by land and sea. The book "The Travels of Ibn Battuta" has been translated into many European languages. It contains a large amount of historical, geographical and ethnographic material.

Thus, Arab travel scholars of the 9th – 14th centuries. made a great contribution to the history of the development and discovery of new lands, significantly expanded the ideas of ancient authors about the surrounding world, introducing Western Europe to the Asian continent, which contributed to the rapprochement of Asian and European civilizations.

But the Arab conquests also had a negative connotation for Europe. With the emergence of the Arab Caliphate, routes to the markets of eastern and European countries were closed for Europeans, and land communication with India was completely excluded. This led to the fact that in the 9th century. there was a shift in trade routes to northern Europe.

The most courageous seafarers among Europeans during this period were the Normans. The Norman seafarers were known by various names: the Frisians, who lived in what is now Belgium and Holland; Celts, Anglo-Saxons, Franks, who lived in the territory of modern Ireland, England and France; Vikings, Scandinavians, Ostmans, Nordslaids, who lived in the territory of modern Finland, Norway and Sweden; Danes, Aksamats, Geids, Historlings, who lived in the territory of modern Denmark, in the north of Germany, as well as on the coast of the Baltic Sea. Normans, i.e. northern people, was the common name for these peoples. In Byzantium they were called varangs, in Rus' - varangs, and the Arabs called them madhus, which means "pagan monsters".

The Norman subcivilization existed from the middle of the 8th to the beginning of the 12th centuries. The main occupations of the Normans were cattle breeding and fishing. The Norman ships were built from oak and fir wood. Their ships were different from those that sailed the Mediterranean. They had high sides and a pointed bottom. These were river-sea type vessels, no more than 30 meters long and 4.5 meters wide. The Normans used them to reach Constantinople. The sharp-bottomed (keel) ships of the Normans made a real revolution in shipbuilding. Subsequently, such vessels were introduced along the entire coast of Europe.

But the greatest achievement of the Norman navigators is that they were still in the 9th century. reached the shores of North America. The Normans did not know navigation instruments. On the open sea, they navigated by the stars and the Sun. The depth and temperature of the water in the ocean also helped them determine their location. In addition, they navigated by the flight of birds. It is also known that when the Normans sailed to, they were guided along the way by the movement of shoals of fish - cod and herring.

In 985, one of the ships, led by Bjarni, sailing from Iceland to Greenland, was carried far to the west, but the sailors still managed to sail back to Greenland, where they told about a new wonderful land covered with dense forests. In 1000 Leif Eirikson discovered America. This time the discovery of new lands was not accidental. Leif set off on just one ship with a crew of 35 people. They made stops on the Labrador Peninsula, which they gave the name Markland - “Forest Country”, and in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe island of Newfoundland or New England, calling this land Vinland - “Land of the Grapes”. The Norwegians spent the winter in Vinland. After returning to Greenland, it was decided to colonize these lands. A group of settlers, led by Leif Eirikson's brother, arrived in Vinland and even settled in the houses that the Vikings had built for themselves for the winter.

But the settlers did not develop friendly relations with the aborigines. This even follows from the fact that the Vikings called them “skraelings” - scoundrels. The Vikings fled. And although five more expeditions to Vinland were undertaken, they also ended in failure due to clashes with Indians. The memory of the great sea campaigns of the Normans was preserved in the “Saga of the Greenlanders”, “Saga of Eric the Red”, “Saga of Gisli”, etc.

Moving east, the Normans crossed the Baltic Sea, entered the Gulf of Riga and the Gulf of Finland, and along the rivers of Eastern Europe reached the Black Sea, and from there penetrated Byzantium. In a northern direction, the Normans skirted the Scandinavian Peninsula and reached the White Sea. In a western direction, they were the first to cross the Atlantic Ocean and colonize Iceland.

According to legend, Iceland was discovered in 860 by the Norwegian Naddod, whose ship lost its course and landed on unfamiliar shores. Soon settlers from Scandinavia appeared here, who found that the climate of the southern regions of Iceland was very similar to the climate of their homeland, which allowed them to engage in well-known types of economic activity. The colonists did not lose contact with Scandinavia and also traded with other peoples of continental Europe and the population of the British Isles.

In 900, a storm caused the discovery of Greenland. The ship, led by Gunnbjorn and heading from Norway to Iceland, was thrown back to unfamiliar shores. The navigator did not explore the unknown coast and returned to Norway. Later, Eric the Red found this country and explored its coasts for three years. In order to attract settlers, he even called these not very friendly lands the Green Land (Greenland). In 985, the first batch of settlers on 25 ships set off from Iceland to new lands. But only 14 ships managed to get to Greenland, the rest either sank during a storm or turned back to Iceland. The descendants of the Vikings were forced out of Greenland after almost 400 years by the indigenous inhabitants of this island - the Eskimos.

The Normans fortified themselves on the northern and eastern coasts of Britain and in the east of Ireland. In what is now France, they fortified themselves in the lower reaches of the Seine. This territory is still called Normandy to this day.

The Normans were attracted to the rich trading cities of Europe. At that time, the Europeans did not have regular armies, so they were practically powerless in the face of the devastating Viking raids. The Normans raided the Atlantic shores of the Iberian Peninsula, penetrated the Mediterranean Sea through the Strait of Gibraltar, plundered Southern Europe and reached Sicily.

Despite the predatory nature of some of the Norman voyages, their discoveries and improvements in maritime affairs had a positive impact on the preparation and conduct of the voyages of subsequent sailors. In addition, they managed to bring European trade out of the impasse that was caused by the Arab conquests and the capture of the main intercontinental trade routes by the Arabs.

In the 9th–11th centuries. in Europe, pilgrimage tourism continued to develop, which was mostly carried out with the aim of atoning for sins. Since the 9th century. the pilgrimage began to be imposed in the form of a public punishment and a means of expiation. In 868, the noble and wealthy Breton Frothmond, who killed his uncle and one of his brothers, was condemned to a three-time "journey" to the Holy Land to receive a full atonement for his sins. The Roman prefect Cenzius, who insulted the pope himself in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, captivated him at the altar and put him in prison, was forced to beg for forgiveness at the foot of the Holy Sepulcher.

To the famous Western European pilgrims of the 11th century. include Fulk of Anjou, accused of murdering his wife and other crimes, who visited the Holy Land three times; Robert of Normandy, father of William the Conqueror, at whose command his brother Richard was killed. After fasting with prayers, shroud-clad pilgrims visited the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. They kept this shroud for the rest of their lives, and, as a rule, they were buried in it. Many tried to visit Bethlehem and took a palm branch from there with them to their homeland.

To receive pilgrims and other wanderers, hotels - hospitals (hospes) were established. In the 11th century The monastery on Mount Tsenis was especially famous for its reception of pilgrims traveling from Burgundy to Italy.

In the same century, shelters were created in Spain for pilgrims - alberguerias and hospitals, where they could not only relax, but also receive medical care and exchange money. Shelters on mountain roads obliged their caretakers to ring the bell during snowfall or fog and even act as guides.

The knightly Order of the Hospitallers (Joannites) provided a special service for pilgrims. It originates from a hospital located in Jerusalem at the monastery of the Virgin Mary, where, long before the Arab conquests, pilgrims who came to the Holy Land were received and treated. The task of the brotherhood was to help pilgrims and merchants, as well as protect them from the robbery of infidels, which aroused the fighting spirit of the knights of this Order. Hospitallers created a whole chain of hotels throughout the Middle East.

But gradually, military goals began to take precedence, and only individual knights of the Order provided assistance to the pilgrims. In 1259, the Pope even by a special decree approved three types of members of the Order: knights, priests and Brothers Hospitallers.

Despite the developed system of shelters and hotels, making pilgrimages to holy places is becoming increasingly difficult. Pilgrims entered Jerusalem through the Ephraim Gate, and upon entering they were charged a tax. Crowds of thousands of travelers often gathered in front of the gates, waiting for a rich pilgrim who could pay the fee for them. Exhausted by hunger and poverty, the wanderers were forced to wait for months for their time. There were cases when people died at the gates of Jerusalem. But even those who paid the tax did not feel safe. An atmosphere of hostility and hostility towards Christians reigned in the city. Cases of attacks on pilgrims going to holy places have become more frequent.

The alarm has sounded in Europe. In front of a massive gathering of people, letters from famous pilgrims about the situation of Christians and pilgrims from European countries in the Middle East were read out. Hysteria was building up. In 1095, Pope Urban II delivered a sermon to a crowd of thousands of believers in the city of Clermont calling for a holy war against the infidels. The exaltation of the Pope's feelings during this speech, thickly interspersed with the sayings of the prophets, was so great that it was accompanied by crying and sobs of the crowd.

Thus began the era of the Crusades. The officially proclaimed goals of the Crusades were the liberation of the Holy Land from infidels - Muslims - and the seizure of common Christian shrines, given over to Islam for “desecration”. The term “crusades” itself was not used at that time. It arose at the end of the 17th century, when the court historian of Louis XIV, Louis Mambourg, wrote a scientific work dedicated to this era. It was called "The History of the Crusades."

To everyone who wanted to go on the road and stand up for their brothers in faith, the priest gave a canvas with an image of a cross, and their clothes were sprinkled with holy water. During the absence of the crusaders, their property and families were to be under the protection of the church. During the campaigns, the crusaders were freed from any debt obligations, as well as from taxes and taxes. Serfs who wished to take part in the campaign were freed from the power of their feudal lords. In addition, the church promised remission of sins to all who accepted the cross.

In the spring of 1096, the first campaign against Palestine began. This hike can be divided into two parts. First, peasants and urban outcasts with their families left from Northern and Central France and Western Germany. There were about 30,000 thousand people. They were poorly or not at all armed. This was the so-called “march of the poor”. It was led by Peter the Hermit and the beggar knight Walter Golyak. They moved along a path well known to pilgrims - along the Rhine and Danube. Only these “pilgrims” behaved like robbers. Massive looting and robberies turned the local population against them. In order to protect their citizens, some countries (Hungary, Byzantine Bulgaria) created special corridors that prevented a moving convoy from veering off the road.

The notoriety of such would-be pilgrims reached Asia Minor, where the Seljuk Turks ruled. The Turks gave the crusaders the opportunity to reach the city of Nicaea, and, not wanting to endanger their population, killed almost everyone. Only a detachment of 3,000 people managed to return back.

In the autumn of the same year, well-armed knightly detachments set out on a campaign. Their militia consisted of four parts. At the head of the knights of Northern France was the Norman Duke Robert; Southern France - Count Raymond of Toulouse; Lorraine - Duke Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin; Southern Italy - Bohemond of Taren. The knights were followed by convoys with peasants.

In the spring of 1097, these detachments united in Constantinople. The crusaders behaved defiantly with the authorities and local residents, committing robberies and riots. The Byzantine Emperor Alexei II, on the one hand, not wanting to quarrel with the crusaders, and on the other, trying to protect his citizens, urgently organized the crossing of knightly detachments to the shores of Asia Minor.

Overcoming the resistance of the Turks, the crusaders invaded the Christian Armenian principality of Cilicia. It is a former Roman province with its capital city of Edessa. Despite protests from Byzantium, the crusaders captured this principality and created the County of Edessa on its territory, which was headed by Baldwin.

In 1098, the crusaders captured the city of Antioch (now Antakya) and created the Principality of Antioch, headed by Bohemond of Taren.

In the spring of 1099, the crusaders, consisting of 20 thousand knights, approached Jerusalem and, after a long siege, took it by storm.

Thus, by 1100, four crusader states were formed: the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Triapoli, which went to Raymond of Toulouse, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, headed by Godfrey of Bouillon. The first three states were vassals of the latter. The local population was essentially turned into serfs. The church received vast lands and complete tax exemption. The volume of trade quickly increased, in which the crusader states became centers of transit trade between the eastern countries and Europe. Europe prospered. Goods poured in from Egypt, Syria, Persia, and the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. But the main thing is that a centuries-old dream came true: Jerusalem became Christian again. We can say that this was the “golden age” of medieval Europe and, it seemed, no one could shake its power.

But in 1144, the emir of Mosul defeated the crusaders and captured the Principality of Edessa. Concerned about the military intensification of Muslims, a new crusade began to be organized in Europe.

The second campaign (1147 – 1149) was led by the French king Louis VIII and the German emperor Conrad III. The spiritual inspirer of this campaign was the theologian Bernard of Clairvaux. In Europe, a special tax was introduced on crusader equipment. Both knights and ordinary people went on a campaign. Many noble knights were accompanied by their wives and even servants. The knights themselves sailed to Constantinople on ships. Commoners were forced to travel to this city by land, and most of them died on the road.

The feudal knights viewed this campaign not so much as a military action, but as a pleasure trip. Arriving in Constantinople, they spent their time in idle feasts and entertainment and were unable to organize a serious attack on Damascus, which was the original goal of this campaign.

At this time, Muslims created a united state. After the fall of the Fatimid dynasty in Egypt (1171), the general Saladin became the sultan, who united Egypt, Syria and parts of Mesopotamia. Saladin declared a “holy war” (gazavat) on the crusaders. His troops recaptured the cities of Sidon and Beirut from the crusaders and captured Jerusalem in 1187. This was the impetus for the start of a new crusade.

The third campaign (1189 - 1192) was led by the King of England Richard I the Lionheart, the French King Philip II and the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa.

Frederick I's troops moved overland through Sofia and Adrianople. Then they crossed the Dardanel Strait to Asia Minor. There, while crossing one of the rivers, Frederick I drowned. Having reached the city of Konya (central part of Turkey), the knights turned back.

Troops under the leadership of Richard I set off by sea from London and Dartmud, along the coasts of France, Spain and through the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. In Marseilles and Genoa they were joined by knights led by Philip II. Further from the Ligurian Sea, through the Strait of Bonifacio, their ships entered the Tyrrhenian Sea and through the Strait of Messina into the Mediterranean Sea.

The knights of Richard I, having captured the islands of Crete and Rhodes, united with the knights of Philip II near the city of Acre, which they took by storm, and were ready to march on Jerusalem. But, having learned that the troops of Frederick I had turned back, and the German emperor himself had died, the crusaders postponed the assault on Jerusalem until the next crusade.

Fourth campaign (1202 – 1204). In the decade after the third campaign, great changes occurred in the political life of Europe. Large feudal lords demanded the redistribution of property, the struggle for power intensified, the faith of the masses in the saving nature of the campaigns against Jerusalem was shaken, and the campaigns themselves became aggressive, although they still took place under the banner of Christ.

An example of this was the Fourth Crusade. French, Italian and German feudal lords took part in it. The organizer of this campaign, Pope Innocent III, took the initiative to reconquer Egypt from the Arabs and divide these lands. The ships with the crusaders were supposed to sail from Venice. But the Venetian merchants managed to change the intentions of the crusaders (through bribery, deception, etc.). As a result, the crusaders did not go to Egypt, but, rounding the Balkan Peninsula, sailing through the Aegean and Marmara Seas, treacherously attacked Byzantium. Byzantine Empire from the 11th century. was weakened by the conquests of the Seljuk Turks, and therefore could not provide serious resistance to the crusaders. In 1204, the Crusaders captured and destroyed Constantinople. On the site of the Byzantine Empire, the crusaders created the Latin Empire, the Thessalian and Achaean principalities, as well as the Duchy of Athens and Thebes.

In such conditions, the campaign against Jerusalem became irrelevant. The attention of feudal Europe turned to the newly created states. But not everyone was happy with the results of the fourth campaign. The newly created Orders of the Dominicans and Franciscans showed particular dissatisfaction. They believed that the feudal lords had discredited the noble mission of the Crusades and insisted on cleansing from sins. They believed that only the innocent souls of children could save the situation. Thus was born one of the most grandiose and tragic adventures of the Middle Ages.

In 1212, the so-called “Children’s Crusade” took place. It was led by a shepherd boy named Stephen, who was led to believe that he was a messenger of God and was called to lead righteous children to recapture the Holy Land from the Muslims. Across Europe, about 50 thousand children responded to the call. Their gathering took place in Marseille. From there they were to be sent by ship to Syria. But the children were deceived by slave traders and instead of Syria they were taken to Egypt, where they were sold in slave markets.

Europe became despondent from such deceit. The Crusader movement began to decline. But agitation on the part of the Greek Catholic Church still yielded results. A new crusade was organized.

The fifth campaign (1217 - 1212) was led by the Hungarian king Andras. It was a weak campaign. Western European feudal lords and rulers considered the Hungarian king an upstart and did not support him. The crusaders of Western Europe were preparing their campaign.

The sixth campaign (1228 - 1229) was led by the excommunicated German Emperor Frederick II. Having learned about this, Pope Gregory IX tried to ban this campaign. But it was no longer possible to stop the knights. Moreover, Frederick II tried to atone for his guilt for the children who were enslaved. The campaign was quite successful. The knights captured cities in Palestine and Egypt and returned some of the teenagers to their homeland. The Crusaders even managed to take Jerusalem. But there was no particular enthusiasm in Europe for this. Fifteen years later, in 1244, the Muslims captured Jerusalem again. And, although after this the crusades were still carried out, they were already of a purely aggressive nature.

The seventh campaign (1228-1254) was led by the French king Louis IX. The knights set off to conquer the coast of North Africa (the territory of modern Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria). The campaign ended in failure, and Louis IX himself was captured, from which he was later ransomed for huge sums of money. Moreover, the crusaders lost all their possessions.

In 1261, under the onslaught of the troops of the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, the Latin Crusader Empire ceased to exist. The Byzantine Empire was restored, but only memories remained of its former greatness. In 1268 the crusaders lost Antioch. A series of defeats forced the crusaders to organize a new campaign.

The eighth campaign took place in 1270. The issue of reconquering the Holy Land from the infidels no longer figured among the main tasks of this campaign. He not only did not improve the situation, but brought new losses. In 1289, the crusaders surrendered the city of Tripoli, and in 1291. left their last stronghold in Syria and throughout the Middle East - the city of Acre. Only the islands of Crete, Rhodes and a number of other islands of the Mediterranean Sea were preserved by the crusading knights in the East.

This was the end of the nearly three hundred year era of the Crusades.

But historically and socially, the crusades also had positive results.

For the first time, Western Europeans rose from their seats in large numbers, which gave them the opportunity to get acquainted with countries and peoples unknown to them. They partly adopted their manners and customs, partly passed on theirs to them.

Thanks to these campaigns, Europe was able to get acquainted with the achievements of science and culture of the Arab world. European scientists significantly enriched their knowledge in the fields of astronomy, geography, mathematics, and chemistry.

Universities are emerging in Europe. The first university can be considered Bologna, founded at the end of the 11th century. In 1200, the University of Paris was founded, which was formalized as the “Sorbonne” by the founding charter of Philip II. In the 12th century. Oxford and Cambridge Universities were founded in England, Salaman in Spain and Naples in Italy.

Arab philosophers translated into Arabic and preserved many works of ancient authors, in particular Aristotle.

New stories began to appear in European literature, borrowed from the works of Eastern authors.

The food has become more varied. Europeans began to cultivate previously unknown rice, apricots, lemons, buckwheat, watermelons, pistachios, and consume sugar obtained from sugar cane. Before this, the only sweet product in Europe was honey.

In the 12th century. Windmills began to be built in Europe. The crusaders saw them in Syria. Some fabrics are of oriental origin, for example satin, which means “beautiful” in Arabic. From the end of the 12th century. They began to breed carrier pigeons, which the Arabs had long used.

The Crusades gave a significant impetus to overland travel.

The further development of travel is associated with the Mongol conquests. At the beginning of the 13th century. The Mongol-Tatars created a huge empire from the Danube to the Pacific Ocean. As a result of the Mongol conquests, routes were created through Eastern Europe to Central Asia and China. In European circles, it was believed that it was possible not only to trade with the Mongols, but also to use them as allies in the fight against Muslims during the Crusades.

In 1245, on behalf of Pope Innocent IV, the Italian Franciscan monk Giovanni del Plano Carpini went to establish diplomatic relations with the Mongol khans. He left Lyon, where the pope's residence was located. Then he proceeded through the Czech and Polish lands and arrived in Kyiv. There he purchased furs and other valuable gifts for the Mongol Khan. From Kyiv, Carpini reached the city of Danilov, and, having moved to Kanev on the Dnieper, ended up in the possession of the Mongols.

Carpini's embassy initially reached the headquarters of Khan Batu, which was located at the mouth of the Volga. The Mongols liked the gifts and the contents of the papal letter, and Carpini was allowed to go to Karakorum to visit the Great Khan Ogedei. But Carpini was allowed to take with him only one companion - the Franciscan monk Benedict. They traveled more than eight thousand kilometers in three and a half months. By the time they arrived in Karakorum, the Great Khan Ogedei had died. While the ambassadors were waiting to see who would become the new Great Khan, Carpini observed the life and everyday life of the Mongols. In his famous book “The History of the Mongols,” Carpini talks about the customs, morals, and traditions of this people, and gives a description of their appearance and even character traits. A month later, Ogedei's son Kuyuk was proclaimed Great Khan. He rejected the ambassadors' proposal for a military alliance and even threatened to destroy the entire world from East to West. Having safely left Karakorum, the ambassadors reached Kyiv in 1247, and from there returned to Rome.

Six years after Carpini's return, the Franciscan monk Guillaume de Rubruck went to the Mongols. He was sent by Louis IX during the Seventh Crusade. In 1253, Rubruk sailed from Acre (then still under the rule of the Crusaders) in order to persuade the Mongols to oppose the Muslims and help the defeated knights of Louis IX. Rubruk reached the Crimean Peninsula by sea. Then he rode carts to the Volga and, following the route laid out by Carpini, reached Karakorum. There he was received by the Great Khan Mongke, who once again rejected European proposals for any kind of alliance.

But the work Rubruk left behind, “Journey to the Eastern Countries,” gave Europeans a lot of valuable information about the life of the Mongols. In 1911, the book was translated into Russian. It describes Astrakhan, the Caucasus, and the cities of Asia Minor. Having examined the coast of the Caspian Sea, Rubruk determined that this was not an ocean bay, as Herodotus and Strabo believed, but a lake. Rubruk also marked the Central Asian Plateau on the map.

A Franciscan monk from the Czech Republic, Odoriko Matthius, traveled through Asia for missionary purposes. He began his journey in 1316 from the walls of Constantinople. Having crossed the Caucasus, he reached Iran, where he visited the ancient capital of Persepolis. Then he visited Baghdad and from there moved to the port city of Hormuz and sailed by sea to Bombay. Walking south along the Malabar coast, he visited the islands of Ceylon and Madras. From Madras he sailed to the large Sunda Islands and from there arrived in China. Matt lived in Beijing for three years. The traveler returned through Tibet, Afghanistan, Northern Iran, the Caucasus, and from there by sea to Venice. In total, his travels lasted 14 years, and wherever Odorico Matt visited, he tried to convert the local population to the Christian faith. For his missionary work he was canonized by the Catholic Church.

And yet the Venetian merchant Marco Polo is considered the most famous traveler of the Middle Ages.

In the 13th century Venetian and Genoese merchants dominated the Mediterranean Sea. It was they who tried to compete with Arab merchants in the struggle for markets in the East, Central Asia and China. The richest merchants of Venice, who in terms of income could be placed on a par with the nobles, were the brothers Nicolo and Maffeo Polo. They lived in Constantinople, where at that time Venetian merchants dominated, by whose will the crusaders captured this city. From there, the brothers, in order to establish new trade relations, went to the northeast, to the country of the Tatars. In 1266 they arrived to Kublai Khan, the fourth son of Genghis Khan. The Mongols accepted the merchants' offer and decided to send an embassy, ​​instructing the Polo brothers to be his representatives before Pope Gregory X. The Venetians returned home in 1269. On their next trip, the Polo brothers took their son Nicolo Marco with them.

The second journey began in 1271 from Acre. Constantinople at that time had already been recaptured from the Crusaders, and Byzantine and Genoese merchants, the worst enemies of the Venetians, dominated there. Next, the merchants reached the city of Layas (a port in Cilicia). Then their path lay through the cities of Kayseria, Sivas, Erzincan and Erzurum in Asia Minor. Through Anatolia they arrive at the foot of Mount Ararat and then through Mosul, Tabriz, the merchants travel to the cities of Persia: Tabriz, Sava, Iezd, Kerman. Then from Hormuz they intended to sail by ship to China. But the ships seemed unreliable to them, and they turned north to Afghanistan. They then crossed the Pamirs and descended on the caravan route from Central Asia and Persia to China. But, unlike the first journey, the merchants did not go to Karakorum, but turned to the southwest and went to the Yellow River and reached Shandu - the summer headquarters of the Great Khan Kublai Khan. Marco Polo entered the service of the Mongol Khan and served at the court of Kublai Kublai for 17 years.

In 1295, Marco Polo returned to Venice. By this time, the enmity between the Venetian and Genoese merchants had reached its limit. This resulted in open confrontation. In 1298, the Genoese fleet attacked the Venetian Republic. The Genoese defeated the Venetians. Among the captured Venetians was Marco Polo. He was imprisoned in a fortress, and there he dictated his book “The Book of M. Polo on the Diversity of the World,” which was written down by fellow prisoner Rusticiano. In 1299 peace was concluded and Marco Polo returned home.

The book of Marco Polo, according to many scientists, occupies an exceptional place among the works of medieval travelers and geographers. It contains a wealth of information about East, South and West Asia. M. Polo also collected information about China and described the lands from Japan to Madagascar. This book even contains information about countries that Polo has never been to. This is what gave some scientists reason to doubt the reliability of the book’s materials.

Almost simultaneously with the journey of Marco Polo, the journey of two Uyghurs, natives of China, Sauma and Marcos, took place. They belonged to Nestorian Christians. Deciding to become hermits, Sauma and Markos settled in a cave they dug not far from Khanbalik. There the idea of ​​getting to Jerusalem was born.

In 1278 they set off. Through East Turkestan, the travelers reached the headquarters of the Mongol Khan, from whom they received a safe conduct, which gave them the right to unhindered travel throughout Central Asia. Next were the cities of Urgench, Khorezm and Khorasan. After a short rest, the wanderers crossed the Persian region of Azerbaijan and reached Baghdad. In 1280, Marcos and Sauma in Baghdad were proclaimed leaders of the Nestorian Church in China. Marcos later became patriarch of the Nestorian Church.

At this time, the Mongol Khan Arghun conceived a campaign against Palestine and Syria, and decided to send an ambassador to the Byzantines and Western Europeans to enlist their help. Sauma was appointed such ambassador. In 1287, the embassy crossed the Black Sea and reached Constantinople. Next, the embassy went to Naples, Rome, Genoa and Paris. From Paris the embassy went to Bordeaux, and from there to Rome. After ten years of wandering in 1288, Sauma returned to the headquarters of the Mongol Khan. There he wrote notes about his travels. These notes formed the basis of the book “The History of Mar Yabalaha III and Rabban Sauma.”

In the Middle Ages, the movement of peoples took place not only from west to east, but also from east to west. A significant contribution to the development of new countries and territories was made by travelers of medieval China, whose works were used by European scientists. For example, A. Humboldt in the book "Central Asia", K. Ritter in the book "Comparative Land Tenure of Asia" and others.

Starting from the 4th century. AD, Buddhism spreads in China. This is due to the expansion of cultural ties between China and India. Pilgrims are sent from China to India, paving the way to Buddhist shrines. The most prominent of them was Fa Xian.

In 339, he set out from his hometown of Xi'an northwest across the Loess Plateau and along the southern edge of the sandy deserts of northwestern China. After crossing several mountain ranges and passing through the Gobi desert, the traveler reached Lake Lob-Nor. From there, Fa Xian headed northwest, crossed the Tien Shan and reached the Ili River (near the modern border of China with Russia). Then he arrived in the Khotan kingdom, where the Buddhist Tatars lived. There, Fa Xian attended a solemn Buddhist holiday, which he later colorfully described in his book. Then the traveler went to Eastern Afghanistan, where he visited and described the huge Buddhist statues carved into the rock.

Having crossed the mountains of Eastern Afghanistan, Fa Xian arrived in Northern India. After exploring the sources of the Indus River, he arrived at Peshawar, located between Kabul and the Indus. Then he crossed the Hindu Kush ridge and came to the Punjab, and in 414 he returned to his homeland by sea.

In India, Fa Xian collected legends and tales about Buddha, observed nature, people, their customs and mores. Fa Xian outlined all his knowledge in the book “Description of Buddhist States.” It describes more than 30 states of Central Asia and India, summarizes historical, geographical and ethnographic information about these states.

Two centuries after Fa Xian, a representative of Eastern Buddhism, Xuan Zang, traveled to India. In 626, he left Xi'an and traveled the first part of the journey along the road followed by his predecessor. From the city of Anxi, Xuan Zang headed to the Tien Shan and reached Lake Lob Nor. Then the traveler turned to the northwest and, having crossed the Bedel Pass (4,284 m), headed to Central Asian territory. He walked along the banks of Issyk-Kul, visited the Chui Valley, Chimkent, Tashkent and Samarkand. Then he went southeast to the lower reaches of the Vakhsh River and, not far from its confluence with Pyanj, entered the territory of Afghanistan. The traveler crossed its eastern part through Kun-duz, Charikar, Jalalabad and reached the Indian city of Peshawar.

Xuan Zang traveled around India for about 17 years. On the way back, he again visited Afghanistan and went to Xinjiang along the Panj valley, along the southern edge of the Pamirs. Through Tashkurgan, Kashgar and Kargalyk he headed to Khotan and further east to Lake Lob-Nor.

In 648, Xuan Zang wrote his famous work “Notes on Western Countries,” which was included in the treasury of Chinese literature. The book is distinguished by a wealth of factual data on the history and geography of eastern countries. In the 8th century it was reprinted several times in European languages.

Thus, thanks to travelers and researchers of the Middle Ages, a vast space from Norway to China was explored.

The shores of the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean and Red Seas, the Indian Ocean and the Chinese Sea have been studied. Travelers penetrated into the interior regions of different countries - from Egypt to Ethiopia, from Asia Minor to the Caucasus, from India and China to Mongolia. The ships were well versed in the wind conditions, navigation instruments appeared, which made it possible to confidently embark on long voyages and create prospects for new discoveries.

As noted above, the Arabs in geographical descriptions were not limited to the Caliphate, they continued their travels to the northeast and southeast, where the historical regions such as Maverannahr, Semirechye and East Turkestan were located and entered the trade routes that had existed for several centuries before the arrival of the Arabs .

Arab travelers in their geographical descriptions gave a detailed picture of cities and settlements, their inhabitants, localities and a number of other valuable information that were located on the Great Silk Road and thus they made a significant contribution to the study of the history and culture of the peoples of Central Asia in the Middle Ages. Thanks to the reports of Arab travelers, we know about the existence of medieval cities and settlements, the names of tribes and localities, the routes of trade routes, to a certain extent, provide some information about the economic and religious life of the inhabitants of this region.

For Arab geographers of the 9th-10th centuries. it is typical to describe only Muslim countries, since there is no need to describe the country of the atheists. At that time, the Talas Valley and the western part of the current Osh Valley up to the city of Uzgen were part of the Islamic area. In Central Asia, caravan trade experienced a kind of trade boom, since the main branches of the Silk Road passed through the territory of this region.

Information from Arab authors of the 9th-10th centuries. make it possible to restore with greater or lesser accuracy for the period under consideration the section of the Great Silk Road with all its branches that passed through Central Asia. The main route of this section began in Baghdad - the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate - the largest center of culture and trade in the entire Muslim East, connected with numerous countries of the world. Naturally, trade relations with other states depended on the intensity of interstate relations, as well as on stability in the regions located on the trade route.

During this period, Central Asia was experiencing a kind of trade boom associated with the development of cities, crafts and trade; the subject of trade was a wide variety of goods imported from different countries, which were in great demand in Central Asian markets.

There is also no doubt that Arab travelers walked only along the most convenient, well-known caravan routes, where they could get (or buy) everything they needed for their further journey. This indicates that the exploration routes coincide with pre-existing trade routes.

Among the Arab travelers, we should highlight ibn Hardadbeh, Qudam ibn Jafar, Ibn al-Faqih, al-Muqaddasi, al-Istakhri, who gave their geographical descriptions of the northern branch of the Great Silk Road. In turn, the northern branch consisted of two main branches: Southern and Northern. Judging by the descriptions of Arab travelers, they managed to pass both branches, in addition, to characterize these routes. According to their description, Arab travelers moved from Baghdad through northern Mesopotamia, got to Iran, and then went along the Persian section to the northeast, to the region of Khorasan, where the Central Asian section proper began. The city of Merv (now Mary, Turkmenistan) served as a gateway to Central Asia, the latter was of great political and commercial importance in the 9th-10th centuries. From Merv, travelers went to Amul (now Charzhou, Turkmenistan) further to Bukhara, from there to Samarkand. The Arabs indicated the distance between these cities, and they occupy from 36 to 39 farsakhs (1 farsakh - 6-7 km.). Moreover, ibn-Hardadbeh, Kudama ibn Jafar and ibn al-Fakih give different distances between these cities and this difference is from 3 to 5 farsakhs. When establishing their modern equivalent, it is necessary to take into account the difference between road and cartographic distances, the difference between ancient and modern distances. The fact is that travelers sought to straighten and strengthen the paths, if the geographical relief allowed it, and opened up new paths or their sections and a number of other points. This can be seen in the further description of the routes of Arab travelers.

Then the travelers moved from Samarkand to Zamin (Uzbekistan), here the trade route was divided into branches, these are the so-called Fergana (southern) and Shash (Turkic). According to V.V. For Bartold, this path was divided in Sabata. From Zamin the road went to the city of Akhsiket (now the ruins of Iski-akhsy, Uzbekistan). According to O.K. Karaev that between these cities (more) four branches departed from the southern road: two villages of Sabata, the third in the city of Khojent, and the fourth in the city of Akhsiket. These roads connected the Muslim regions with the regions of Central Asia. Further the route followed from the city of Akhsiket through Kuba to Osh, and then to Uzgen. This route for caravan trade was convenient and passed through the steppe. From Uzgen, the path lay through high mountain passes along Kudam ibn Jafar al-Aqaba, where the author notes that the road is very steep and difficult to pass, with ups and downs, and from there you can get to the city of Atbash. From Aqaba the road led through the Kara-Koyun valley to the medieval city of Atbash (now the ruins of Koshoy-Korgon). According to the archeology of the city of Atbash in the 8th-12th centuries. was the headquarters of the Turkic Khagans.

Obviously, the southern road played a secondary role, since this route is less well-known among Arab geographers, with the exception of Kudam ibn Jafar.

As for the Turkic or Shash road, the Northern branch of the Great Silk Road, as Arab travelers called it, it began at the city of Zamin, from there the path lay to the Turk River (modern Chirchik) and further to the city of Shash (Tashkent). According to Arab writers r. Türk was considered as the border between the Muslim regions and the country of the Turks or infidels. From the city of Shash the road led to Isfijab (Chimkent), from there to Taraz. All the distances between cities and villages indicated by Arab travelers almost coincide with modern ones, and therefore we have no reason not to trust the authors.

From the city of Taraz, the northern route passed through the villages of Uch-Bulak and Kulan (st. Lugovaya), this section is mentioned by ibn Hardadbeh and al-Muqaddasi that there was a cathedral mosque and a fortification in Kulan.

Northern road from the village. Kulan to the village. Aspara (village Chaldovar), passed through the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan through numerous villages of the Chui Valley to the city of Nevaket (Kemin). In this area, according to Arab geographers, there were numerous cities and villages Merke, Aspara, Nusket, Haranjuvan, Saryg, Jul, Kirmirab and Nevaket (Orlovka village), now all of the above cities and villages are in ruins.

The northern road from the city of Nevaket led through the city of Suyab (now the village of Shabdan) to Upper Barskan, the latter was located on the southeastern shore of Issyk-Kul, then the path lay through the San-Tash pass in the Karkara region to East Turkestan. arabic geographical cartography travel

According to O. Karaev, northern and southern trade roads connect in the Upper Barskan region.

In the Talas and Chu valleys, the northern road was divided into five branches, passing directly through the territory of modern Kyrgyzstan.

The first (Chatkal) branch of the northern route began near the city of Taraz and went through the Kara-Bura pass and the Chatkal valley to Fergana. Muslim geographers of the 10th century reported on the Chatkal Valley. Ibn Haukal, al-Muhaddasi and author of the anonymous work Hudud al-Alam and its city of Ardalanket.

The second branch of the northern road also began near the city of Taraz and passed through the territory of Kyrgyzstan and led to Upper Barskan through the valleys of Talas and Suusamyr.

The third (Ili) branch began in the Harran region (the village of Ak-Su). According to A.N. Bernshtam, this path passed through the Taikechu ford on the river. Chu, Kurdai Pass, near Almaty.

The fourth branch of the northern road is connected with the city of Dzhul (ruins of Chala-Kazak). V.V. Bartold wrote on the basis of written sources of the 9th-10th centuries that this path ran from Jul through Taraz and connected with the road from Akhsiket.

The last, fifth branch began in the city of Nevaket and went along the Boom Gorge to the shores of Issyk-Kul, where it connected with the southern road. Although A. Bernshtam denies the existence of this trade line, citing the fact that the Boom Gorge is devoid of any traces of former inhabited areas.

Thus, the emergence and then the flourishing of Arab geographical science were associated with a number of factors, primarily with the formation of the Arab caliphate and the spread of Islam, as well as the development of Greek geographical science by the Arabs and its creative achievements. In addition, the Arabs simultaneously connected all achievements in the field of science with the needs and interests of the state and the financial and economic system.

So, the Arab geographers ibn-Hardadbeh, Qudama ibn-Jafar, al-Istakhri and others, gave in their works a geographical description of the northern branch of the Great Silk Road, in which they noted the existence of cities and settlements in the 9th-10th centuries. on the territory of Kyrgyzstan. It can be said, judging by the reports of Arab geographers, that the northern branch of the trade route occupied a special place, like all other branches of the Great Silk Road. Moreover, the travelers indicated the routes of roads and areas, the distances between them, without which it would have been impossible to reconstruct the routes of caravan trade. There is no doubt that settled and nomadic populations took an active part in international trade, as Arab geographers emphasize. In addition, thanks to the reports of these travelers, we know that on the territory of Kyrgyzstan, urban civilization, craft and trade were rapidly developing at that time, and occupied a significant place in their economic life.

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