During the Great Geographical Discoveries, Europeans discovered previously unknown and unique Indian civilizations to the world. The Old World was amazed by the original culture and art of these peoples no less than by the countless treasures they possessed. The history of the civilizations of pre-Columbian America goes back to hoary antiquity. It is interesting not only in itself, but its influence on the development of the whole world is extremely important.
The first city-states of the people Mayan with a well-established management system appeared at the beginning of our era on the territory of modern Mexico and other states of Central America. The Maya are the only people of pre-Columbian America who had writing in the form of hieroglyphs. The Mayans wrote their books (codexes) with paints on long strips of material made from plant fibers, and then put them in cases. There were libraries at the temples. The Mayans had their own calendar and knew how to determine eclipses of the Sun and Moon. They were the first to introduce the concept of zero into mathematics.
Story Aztecs before their appearance in the second half of the 12th century. Central Mexico is full of mysteries. They called their homeland the island of Aztlan (“where the herons live”). The location of the island still remains unknown, but it is from here that the word “Aztec” comes. The nomadic Aztec hunters were very warlike and subjugated many Indian tribes. A powerful empire arose with its capital Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City).
The Aztecs were skilled farmers, had excellent skills in pottery and weapons crafts, and knew the secrets of metal processing. When Hernan Cortes took over the Aztec ruler Montezuma, he, in order to stop the advance of the conquerors, sent his ambassadors to meet them with gifts for the Spanish king. Among the many treasures were beautiful works of Indian craftsmen - magnificent dishes, exquisite jewelry, perfect figurines of animals. Such generosity, however, did not save Montezuma and his people from insidious destruction.
Unlike the bulk of Indian jewelry, mercilessly melted down by Europeans into gold bars, Montezuma's gifts were lucky. They went straight to the king and were therefore preserved. Over time, they made an indelible impression on the wonderful German artist Albrecht Durer. He recalled: “In all my life I have never seen anything that would have gladdened my heart as much as these things. So, I saw among them wonderful, most perfect products and was amazed at such talent of people from distant countries.” Material from the site
The largest state in ancient America was the empire. Incas with its center in the city of Cusco, located high in the mountains (in the territory of modern Peru). The Incas themselves called their homeland “Tauantinsuyu” - “four connected directions of the world.” Incas (the word itself meant "ruler") They deified the Sun and were excellent astronomers. They successfully farmed, raised herds of llamas, and produced high-quality fabrics. The Incas invented the original knotted writing - “quipu”. It was a cord to which multi-colored threads were tied in the form of pendants. Combining such threads made it possible to make the necessary “records”. One of the found samples of “khipu” weighs 6 kg. The city of Cusco greeted the European invaders with amazing palaces, temples and squares, and from the four gates of the capital, roads leading to the four corners of the world began.
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| Machu Picchu - the city of the Incas. Modern look |
The Conquest destroyed ancient Indian civilizations. Entire states and cultures were wiped off the face of the earth. The Mayans, Aztecs, Incas and other pre-Columbian peoples of America themselves turned into slaves or were physically destroyed en masse. Thus, the Great Geographical Discoveries had sad and tragic pages in their history.
Introduction
The origins of ancient American civilizations have always been controversial. They were considered the descendants of the Egyptians, Trojans and even the Carthaginians, and one hypothesis names the ten disappeared tribes of Israel among the ancestors of the Indians. In fact, the ancestors of the Indians came from Siberia. In pursuit of game, they crossed the Bering Strait on the ice. Eleven thousand years ago they reached the southern tip of South America. High-level cultures developed in parts of Central America (now mostly modern Mexico and Guatemala), as well as in the central Andes (now Peru and the Bolivian plateau region).
The history of state and law of ancient American civilizations is usually divided into the following categories:
- ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica
- and the ancient states of South America
Mesoamerica is the territory between South and North America. The first evidence of the appearance of signs of dimestication (domestication) of maize in Mexico dates back to the 5th century BC. In the 4th millennium BC. Maize farming spreads in the Teucana Valley. The population in the Teukana Valley finally switched to a sedentary lifestyle in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC.
South America - divided into:
- the Andes region (from Colombia to Chile), which includes the Inca culture of Peru;
- Rainforest habitat, mainly occupied by the Amazon jungle; Guyana adjoins it;
- Great Chaco;
- Southern range, stretching to Tierra del Fuego.
The Andean region of the ancient period can be represented as follows. People settled in the high Andean valleys ten thousand years ago. Hunting was not developed; people obtained protein from fishing. Agricultural culture arose earlier than transhumance. An irrigation system is created and a state is created that distributes water. The Chavin culture emerges on the northern plateau. The main deity of their cult, the jaguar or puma, was popular in the Andean region for five hundred years.
Around 300 AD traces of the unity of the Andean region are disappearing, but agriculture is developing: new plant species are being cultivated, terrace farming is being practiced.
Around 200 AD, the culture, a transitional period, reaches its peak. They are theocratic, the main deity is a feline, human sacrifices are made to the gods, the child’s skull is deformed from birth, and then throughout life, the skull is repeatedly trepanned; the same procedure is carried out after death; Enemy skulls are collected as trophies.
The Mochica culture erected huge temples, the most famous of which are two pyramids called the Temple of the Sun and the Temple of the Moon. The coastal Nazca culture, contemporary with the Mochica culture, left behind many flattened skulls, painted and strung in garlands to make them easier to transport. On the rocks of the Palpa valley, the Nazcas created huge drawings reflecting the system of astronomical knowledge and intended for contemplation from above by the deity. By the end of this period, the megalithic civilization of Tiahuanaco (Bolivia) exerts the same cultural influence on the peoples inhabiting the Andes as the Chavin culture had in an earlier era.
Around 1000 AD A socio-political system reminiscent of Western feudalism is established in the Andes. In the north, the kingdom of Chimu arises, which subjugates many valleys, each of which builds its own urban center.
Chapter 1. Socio-political system of ancient America
civilization
§1. Social order
Many tribes and peoples lived in America. The Mayans, Aztecs and Incas stood higher than other peoples in terms of economic development and culture.
People Mayan
inhabited the Yucatan Peninsula in Central America. The heyday of the Mayan civilization occurred approximately in the 3rd-9th centuries, when the Mayan state included the territory of today's Guatemala, part of Mexico, etc.
There was social stratification in Mayan society. The nobility, who owned the wealth acquired by trade, and the simple peasants who worked the land were separated by a deep chasm. The land belonged to the communities; The community allocated a plot cleared of forest to each family. Nobles and priests dominated over ordinary community members. There were also slaves from captives and debtors.
In the 1st century The Mayans developed city-states. At the head of each city was a “great man” - a ruler who passed on power by inheritance. He collected taxes from the population of the area.
The nobility lived in the center of the city in stone palaces, and on the outskirts, “low people” - peasants and artisans - settled in huts. The nobility also differed in appearance. Aristocrats admired their long, flat foreheads; They used special tablets to squeeze the heads of their children to deform their skulls.
By the time the Spanish arrived, civil war had nearly destroyed the Mayan civilization. Some cities are overgrown with forest. The Spaniards discovered fortified cities with preserved stone buildings, market squares and temples.
The Mayans were influenced by the Olmecs and some researchers believe that they are one people.
The social organization of the Maya was clan-fratrical structures. The rulers of the kingdoms bore the title of Ahav, and the centers subordinate to them were ruled by Sahals, who came from local clans.
A special group was made up of priests who performed various functions: some were ideologists who claimed power, others were shamans, scientists and healers. The Mayans had hieroglyphic writing that was partially deciphered, a complex and accurate calendar, architecture and sculpture, dramatic art with the sacrifice of the main character. The high priest was subordinate to the haksh uinik.
Wars had the character of nabogs for ruin and the capture of prisoners, they were constantly waged, strengthening one or the other city.
There is almost no dependent population. The basis of society was made up of free community members. They participated in public works and military campaigns when they were free. The basis of the economy is slash-and-burn communal farming with changing plots.
A new type of political-territorial formation is gradually being formed: a confederation of cities with a distinguished capital. Domestic slavery and the sacrifice of slaves and the slave trade arise.
In the 13th century came to the territory of what is now Mexico from the north Aztecs
and founded the city of Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs are an Indian people who inhabited the territory of Central America. In the 15th century they conquered other territories. By 1520, the Aztec empire stretched from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic coast, from the deserts in the north to the settlements of the Mayan Indians on the Yucatan Peninsula in the south.
The Aztec civilization was considered one of the most prosperous. The empire of 15 million people was administered with a high degree of efficiency.
The head of the state was a hereditary ruler. High positions were occupied by noble people and received salaries for their service. Everything needed was taken from the controlled territories.
The Aztecs subjugated neighboring tribes, forced them to pay heavy tribute and provide slaves. Although the tribes were still ruled by local chiefs, Aztec governors and tribute collectors lived in the main cities.
Life in the state proceeded according to rituals, the course of which was determined by two calendars: one for the civil year, the other for the sacred.
The Aztecs worshiped many gods, but considered themselves the chosen people of the god Huitzilopochtli (the sun god), who demanded human sacrifices. They believed that this god needed constant replenishment of blood: life in the universe could be prolonged only by sacrificing prisoners.
The Aztecs fought to capture more prisoners. At one ceremony during the reign of the last king, Monte Zuma II, 12 thousand captives were executed. The Aztecs sometimes ate the limbs of their victims, and their priests wore ceremonial robes made from human skin. If a brave warrior was sacrificed, the Aztecs were convinced that his strength would pass on to their own soldiers.
At the same time, the Aztecs valued modesty, compassion, obedience, and hard work. They implemented a strict legal system and severely punished crimes. Boys from noble families were sent to boarding schools, where they studied politics, law, history, music, and the art of war. Boys from families learned trade and crafts.
According to Aztec mythology, the wind god Quetzalcoatl, returning from the east, will cause the fall of the Aztec empire, the Spanish conqueror E. Cortes
used this prediction to lay claim to the throne. Aztec ruler
Montezuma believed that Cortes was none other than God. Cortes took Montezuma hostage and began to rule on his behalf. In the end, the unfortunate king was stoned to death by his subjects, whom he tried to call to calm during the Aztec uprising. The fight against the Spaniards continued, in 1521 Cortes captured the capital Tenochtitlan, and then the entire empire. Thus ended the era of the Aztecs and began the era of New Spain.
At the beginning of the 16th century, when the capital of the Aztecs was the largest city in Central America, the capital became the center of South America Incas
Cusco. The Incas settled there in the 12th century. The Inca state stretches over thousands of kilometers in the Andes.
The engineering prowess of the Incas, more than their weapons, brought them success in conquest. Their roads were far superior in length and quality to Roman ones: one of them was almost 2.5 thousand km long. However, it was not only engineering and political insight that allowed them to create such a large country. Like the Aztecs, they believed that they had a divine mission to spread the light of the sun god.
At the head of the state was an unlimited ruler - the Supreme Inca. He ruled in the name of God and had absolute power. The blood relatives of the Incas, who called themselves “sons of the Sun” (the Sun was the main god of the Incas), occupied the highest positions in the state.
The nobility of the conquered peoples completely submitted to the “sons of the Sun”, adopted their language and governed their subjects according to the laws and customs of the Incas. With its help, the Incas controlled the entire country, right down to every peasant household.
The Inca ideology was actively spreading. The children of the “sons of the Sun” studied in special schools. In the absence of writing, they memorized information about religion, government, laws and customs of the Incas.
The population lived in communities. The community member had no right to go beyond the boundaries of the settlement territory without permission from the authorities. The arable land was divided into three parts: the harvest from one went to the priests, from the other to the Supreme Inca, and only one third of the harvest remained for the community members.
The state system provided care for orphans and food storage facilities. Food was distributed from state barns to soldiers and officials, and in case of crop failures and disasters, to the victims. The families of soldiers and those who went to public works were supported by the community.
All subjects were obliged to work where indicated: either on the land, or in construction, or serve in the army. Laziness was considered a serious crime; even children as young as five were required to work.
Postal communications were established between parts of the vast country. Messages from places to the capital were transmitted by specially trained messengers-runners, who were on duty in pairs at each section of the road. Inns and supply warehouses were located along the roads to supply traveling troops and officials.
The last Inca rulers declared themselves not only the descendants of the sun god, but also the god himself. The center of Cusco was rebuilt around the Temple of the Sun, whose walls were covered in gold.
The Inca Empire was overrun by a group of Spanish soldiers led by F. Pizarro.
This defeat was partly a consequence of the Incas' belief in the invulnerability of the ruler Atahualpa. All the power of the Incas was concentrated in their devotion to the emperor, and when he was captured, his subjects were confused, not knowing whom to obey. In addition, the Incas, like the Aztecs, did not have weapons that could withstand cannons and cavalry. Over the course of 50 years, the Spanish conquistadors expanded the borders of the empire so much that it was twice the size of Europe.
The Maya are a Central American civilization known for their writing, art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems. It began to take shape in the pre-classical era (2000 BC - 250 AD), most of its cities reached the peak of their development in the classical period (250 AD - 900 AD). It continued to exist until the arrival of the conquistadors.
Pyramid Of The Magician With Bougainvillea, Uxmal
The Mayans built stone cities, many of which were abandoned long before the arrival of Europeans, others were inhabited even after. The calendar developed by the Mayans was also used by other peoples of Central America. A hieroglyphic writing system was used, partially deciphered.
A significant contribution was made by our compatriot, Yuri Valentinovich Knorozov, whose first publications on this topic appeared in the early 1950s. Numerous inscriptions on the monuments have been preserved. They created an effective farming system and had deep knowledge of astronomy.
Face Sculpture On El Caracol, Chichen Itza
The descendants of the ancient Mayans are not only the modern Mayan peoples, who have preserved the language of their ancestors, but also part of the Spanish-speaking population of the southern states of Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras. Some Mayan cities are included in the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites: Palenque, Chichen Itza, Uxmal in Mexico, Tikal and Quirigua in Guatemala, Copan in Honduras, Hoya de Ceren in El Salvador - a small Mayan village that was buried under volcanic ash and is now excavated.
Temple Of Foliated Cross, 892 AD, Palenque
The Mayans believed that the universe consisted of 13 heavens and 9 underworlds. In the center of the earth there was a tree that passed through all the celestial spheres. On each of the four sides of the earth there was another tree, symbolizing the cardinal points - a red tree corresponded to the east, a yellow tree to the south, a black tree to the west, and a white tree to the north. Each side of the world had several gods (wind, rain and heaven holders) who had a corresponding color. One of the important gods of the Maya of the classical period was the god of corn, represented in the guise of a young man with a high headdress.
Thousand Columns, Chichen Itza
To calculate time, the Mayans used a complex calendar system that included several cycles. One of them represented a combination of numbers from 1 to 13 (“week”) and 20 “months”, which had their own names. A solar calendar with a year of 365 days was also in use. It consisted of 18 months of 20 days and five “extra” or “unlucky” days. In addition, the Mayans used the so-called long count, which, in addition to a 20-day month and an 18-month year, took into account a 20-year period (katun); a period of 20 katuns (baktun) and so on. There were other dating methods. All of these methods changed over time, making it much more difficult to correlate the dates recorded by the Mayans with European chronology.
Chac Mool With Columns In Temple Of Warriors, Chichen Itza
The Mayan calendar predicts the end of the world.
We are talking about a calendar called “Tzolkin,” which was used for ritual ceremonies. According to this calendar, on December 21, 2012, an event comparable to the end of the world should occur. It lies in the fact that during the winter solstice, the Sun will move into the sphere of the Milky Way and will align itself with the Earth and the center of the Galaxy. Powerful flares will occur on it, from which plasma flows will spread over vast distances, even reaching the Earth. As a result, the entire energy system of our planet will be disabled, which means that many millions of living beings will die.
Apparently, it was this global event that the Mayans considered commensurate with the end of the world. On the basis of which ancient astronomers made such conclusions, we can only guess. But it is on this date – December 21, 2012 – that the Mayan calendar ends.
Historical Architectural Scene
It is possible that the end date of the Mayan calendar simply means the end of their calendar cycle, after which the next cycle will begin. Or maybe they meant historical changes, a new era in the history of our Earth, associated with the need to change views on life values and with the spiritual insight of earthlings.
Temple Of The Warriors With Thousand Columns, Chichen Itza
Ancient Site Of Monte Alban, Near Oaxaca
The Aztecs are an Indian people in central Mexico. Number of over 1.5 million people. The Aztec civilization (XIV-XVI centuries) had a rich mythology and cultural heritage. The capital of the Aztec Empire was the city of Tenochtitlan, located on Lake Texcoco (Spanish: Texcoco),
where Mexico City is now located.
In Nahuatl, the native language of the Aztecs, the word “Aztec” literally means “someone from Aztlan,” a mythical place located somewhere in the north. The modern use of the word "Aztec" as a term for peoples related by trade, custom, religion, and language was proposed by Alexander von Humboldt and adopted by 19th-century Mexican scholars as a means of distinguishing contemporary Mexicans from the indigenous Indian populations. Sami
The Aztecs called themselves “Mexica”, or “Tenochka” and “Tlaltelolca” - depending on the city of origin (Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco). As for the origin of the word “mexica” (Ast. mexica, from which, in fact, the word “Mexico” comes), very different versions of its etymology are expressed: the word “Sun” in the Nahuatl language, the name of the Aztec leader Mexitli (Mexitli, Mextli) , a type of algae native to Lake Texcoco. The most famous translator of the Nahuatl language, Miguel León-Portilla (Spanish: Miguel León-Portilla), claims that this word means “middle of the moon” - from the words metztli (Mextli, Metztli, Meshtli, Metchtli - Moon) and xictli (middle) . Self-name
“Tenochki” may come from the name of Tenoch, another legendary leader.
Avenue Of The Dead, Teotihuacan
Ball Court From Archeological Zone Of Monte Alban
Beach View Of Mayan Ruins, Tulum
Chac-Long-Nosed Rain God On Temple Of Warriors
Detail of Wall of Skulls-Tzompantli, Chichen Itza
El Caracol-The Snail
El Castillo-The Castle, Chichen Itza
Entry Door In Mayan Ruins, Uxmal
Governor's Palace At Mayan Ruins, Uxmal
Intertwined Serpents In Relief, Cholula
Monte Alban, 1500 BC-750 AD
Nunnery Quadrangle, Uxmal
Overview Of Pyramid Of The Moon And Pyramid Of The Sun
Palace-7th Century Mayan Ruins, Palenque
Pyramid Of The Sun At Teotihuacan Ruins, Near Mexico City
Rattlesnake Sculpture On Nunnery, Uxmal
Temple Of Sun, 692 AD, Palenque
Temple Of The Jaguars, Chichen Itza.
Templo Mayor, Mexico City
Viking Group At Teotihuacan
© Corel Photo: Mayan & Aztec Ruins
By the time Columbus “discovered” America (1492), it was inhabited by many Indian tribes and ethnic groups, most of which were at a primitive stage of development. However, some of them, living in Mesoamerica (Central America) and the Andes (South America), reached the level of highly developed ancient civilizations, although they were far behind Europe: the latter was by that time experiencing the heyday of the Renaissance.
The meeting of two worlds, two cultures and civilizations had different consequences for the meeting parties. Europe borrowed many of the achievements of Indian civilizations; in particular, it was thanks to America that Europeans began to consume potatoes, tomatoes, corn, beans, tobacco, cocoa, and quinine. In general, after the discovery of the New World, the development of Europe accelerated significantly. The fate of ancient American cultures and civilizations was completely different: the development of some of them actually ceased, and many completely disappeared from the face of the earth.
Available scientific data indicate that the American continent did not have its own centers of formation of ancient man. The settlement of this continent by people began in the Late Paleolithic era - approximately 30-20 thousand years ago - and came from Northeast Asia through the Bering Strait and Alaska. The further evolution of the emerging communities went through all known stages and had both similarities and differences from other continents.
An example of a highly developed primitive culture of the New World is the so-called Olmec Culture, existed on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico in the 1st millennium BC. Much remains unclear and mysterious regarding this culture. In particular, the specific ethnic group that bears (the name “Olmec” is arbitrary) this culture is not known, the general territory of its distribution, as well as the features of the social structure, etc., have not been determined.
Nevertheless, the available archaeological information suggests that in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. The tribes inhabiting Verascus and Tabasco reached a high level of development. They have the first “ritual centers”, they build pyramids from adobe and clay, and construct monuments of monumental sculpture. An example of such monuments were huge anthropomorphic heads weighing up to 20 tons. Relief carvings on basalt and jade, the production of celtic axes, masks and figurines are widespread. In the 1st century BC. The first examples of writing and calendar appear. Similar cultures existed in other areas of the continent.
Ancient cultures and civilizations developed by the end of the 1st millennium BC. and existed until the 16th century. AD - before the arrival of Europeans. In their evolution, two periods are usually distinguished: early, or classical (1st millennium AD), and late, or postclassical (X-XVI centuries AD).
Among the most significant cultures of Mesoamerica of the classical period are Teotihuacan. originated in Central Mexico. The surviving ruins of Teotihuacan, the capital of the civilization of the same name, indicate that it was the political, economic and cultural center of all Mesoamerica with a population of 60-120 thousand people. Crafts and trade developed most successfully in it. Archaeologists have discovered about 500 craft workshops, entire neighborhoods of foreign merchants and “diplomats” in the city. Craftsmanship products are found throughout almost all of Central America.
It is noteworthy that almost the entire city was a kind of architectural monument. Its center was carefully planned around two wide streets intersecting at right angles: from north to south - the Road of the Dead Avenue, over 5 km long, and from west to east - an unnamed avenue up to 4 km long.
At the northern end of the Road of the Dead rises the huge silhouette of the Pyramid of the Moon (height 42 m), made of raw brick and lined with volcanic stone. On the other side of the avenue there is an even more grandiose structure - the Pyramid of the Sun (height 64.5 m), on the top of which a temple once stood. The place where the avenues intersect is occupied by the palace of the ruler of Teotihuacan - the “Citadel”, which is a complex of buildings that included the temple god Quetzalcoatl - The Feathered Serpent, one of the main deities, patron of culture and knowledge, god of air and wind. All that remains of the temple is its pyramidal base, consisting of six decreasing stone platforms, as if placed on top of each other. The facade of the pyramid and the balustrade of the main staircase are decorated with sculpted heads of Quetzalcoatl himself and the god of water and rain Tlaloc in the form of a butterfly.
Along the Road of the Dead there are the remains of dozens more temples and palaces. Among them is the beautiful Palace of Quetzalpapalotl, or the Palace of the Feathered Snail, reconstructed today, the walls of which are decorated with fresco paintings. There are also excellent examples of such painting in the Temple of Agriculture, which depicts gods, people and animals. The original monuments of the culture in question are anthropomorphic masks made of stone and clay. In the III-VII centuries. Ceramic products—cylindrical vessels with picturesque paintings or carved ornaments—and terracotta figurines are widely used.
The culture of Teotihuacan reached its peak at the beginning of the 7th century. AD However, already at the end of the same century, the beautiful city suddenly died, destroyed by a gigantic fire. The causes of this disaster still remain unclear - most likely as a result of the invasion of militant barbarian tribes of Northern Mexico.
Aztec culture
After the death of Teotihuacan, Central Mexico plunged into troubled times of interethnic wars and civil strife for a long time. As a result of repeated mixing of local tribes with newcomers - first with the Chichemecs, and then with the Tenochki-pharmacies - the Aztec capital was founded in 1325 on the desert islands of Lake Texcoco Tenochtitlan. The emerging city-state grew rapidly and by the beginning of the 16th century. turned into one of the most powerful powers in America - the famous Aztec Empire with a huge territory and a population of 5-6 million people. Its borders extended from Northern Mexico to Guatemala and from the Pacific Coast to the Gulf of Mexico.
The capital itself, Tenochtitlan, became a large city with a population of 120-300 thousand inhabitants. This island city was connected to the mainland by three wide stone causeway roads. According to eyewitnesses, the Aztec capital was a beautiful, well-planned city. Its ritual and administrative center was a magnificent architectural ensemble, which included a “sacred area” surrounded by walls, inside which were located the main city temples, dwellings of priests, schools, and a ground for ritual ball games. Nearby were no less magnificent palaces of the Aztec rulers.
basis economy The Aztecs were agriculture, and the main cultivated crop was corn. It should be emphasized that it was the Aztecs who were the first to grow cocoa beans And tomatoes; they are the authors of the word "tomatoes". Many crafts were at a high level, especially gold coinage. When the great Albrecht Durer saw Aztec goldwork in 1520, he declared: “Never in my life have I seen anything that moved me so deeply as these objects.”
Reached the highest level spiritual culture of the Aztecs. This was largely due to the effective education system, which included two types of schools in which the male population is educated. In schools of the first type, boys from the upper class were brought up, who were destined to become a priest, dignitary or military leader. Boys from ordinary families studied in schools of the second type, where they were prepared for agricultural work, crafts and military affairs. Schooling was compulsory.
System of religious-mythological ideas and cults The Aztecs were quite complex. At the origins of the pantheon were the ancestors - creator god Ome teku aphids and his divine consort. Among the active ones, the main deity was the god of the sun and war Huitzilopochtli. War was a form of worship of this god and was elevated to a cult. A special place was occupied by the god Sintheoble, the patron of corn fertility. The protector of the priests was Lord Quetzalcoatl.
Yacatecuhali was the god of trade and patron of merchants. In general, there were many gods. Suffice it to say that every month and every day of the year had its own god.
Developed very successfully . It was based on philosophy, which was practiced by sages who were highly respected. The leading science was astronomy. Aztec astrologers could freely navigate the starry picture of the sky. Satisfying the needs of agriculture, they developed a fairly accurate calendar. taking into account the position and movement of stars in the sky.
The Aztecs created a highly developed artistic culture. Among the arts has achieved significant success literature. Aztec writers created didactic treatises, dramatic and prose works. The leading position was occupied by poetry, which included several genres: military poems, poems about flowers, spring songs. The greatest success was enjoyed by religious poems and hymns that were sung in honor of the main gods of the Aztecs.
No less successfully developed architecture. In addition to the beautiful ensembles and palaces of the capital already mentioned above, magnificent architectural monuments were created in other cities. However, almost all of them were destroyed by the Spanish conquistadors. Among the amazing creations is the recently discovered temple in Malinalco. This temple, which had the shape of a traditional Aztec pyramid, is notable for this. that it was all carved right into the rock. If we consider that the Aztecs used only stone tools, then one can imagine what a gigantic effort the construction of this temple required.
In the 1980s, as a result of earthquakes, excavations and excavations, the Main Aztec Temple was opened in the very center of Mexico City - Templo Mayor. The sanctuaries of the main god Huitzilopochtli and the god of water and rain, patron of agriculture, Tlaloc, were also discovered. Remains of wall paintings and samples of stone sculpture were discovered. Among the finds, a round stone with a diameter of more than 3 m with a bas-relief image of the goddess Coyol-shauhki, the sister of Huitzilopochtli, stands out. Stone figurines of gods, corals, shells, pottery, necklaces, etc. were preserved in deep hiding pits.
The Aztec culture and civilization reached its peak at the beginning of the 16th century. However, this flowering soon came to an end. The Spaniards captured Tenochti Glan in 1521. The city was destroyed, and a new city grew on its ruins - Mexico City, which became the center of the colonial possessions of the European conquerors.
Mayan civilization
Mayan culture and civilization became another amazing phenomenon of pre-Columbian America, which existed in the 1st-15th centuries. AD in southeastern Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala. A modern researcher of this region, G. Lehman, called the Mayans “the most fascinating of all the civilizations of ancient America.”
Indeed, everything connected with the Mayans is shrouded in mystery and mystery. Their origin remains a mystery. The mystery is their choice of settlement - the rugged jungles of Mexico. At the same time, the ups and downs in their subsequent development seem like a mystery and a miracle.
In the classical period (I-IX centuries AD), the development of Mayan civilization and culture proceeded along a steep upward trajectory. Already in the first centuries of our era, they reached the highest level and amazing perfection in architecture, sculpture and painting. The emerging large and populous cities became centers of craft production, marked by a real flowering of painted ceramics. At this time, the Mayans created the only developed hieroglyphic writing, as evidenced by inscriptions on steles, reliefs, and small plastic objects. The Mayans compiled an accurate solar calendar and successfully predicted solar and lunar eclipses.
The main type of monumental architecture there was a pyramidal temple installed on a high pyramid - up to 70 m. If you consider that the entire structure was erected on high pyramidal hills, then you can imagine how majestic and grandiose the entire structure looks. This is exactly how the Temple of the Inscriptions in Palenque appears, which served as the tomb of the ruler like the pyramids of Ancient Egypt. The entire structure was covered with hieroglyphic relief inscriptions that decorate the walls, crypt, sarcophagus lid and other objects. A steep staircase with several platforms leads to the temple. In the city there are three more pyramids with temples of the Sun, the Cross and the Foliated Cross, as well as a palace with a five-story square tower, which apparently served as an observatory: on the top floor there is a stone bench on which the astrologer sat, peering into the distant sky. The walls of the palace are also decorated with reliefs depicting prisoners of war.
In the VI-IX centuries. achieve the highest successes monumental sculpture and Mayan painting. The sculptural schools of Palenque, Copan and other cities achieve rare skill and subtlety in conveying the naturalness of the poses and movements of the characters depicted, which are usually rulers, dignitaries and warriors. Small plastic works are also distinguished by amazing craftsmanship - especially small figurines.
The surviving examples of Mayan painting amaze with the elegance of their design and richness of color. The famous frescoes of Bonampak are recognized masterpieces of pictorial art. They talk about military battles, depict solemn ceremonies, complex rituals of sacrifice, graceful dances, etc.
In the 1st-10th centuries. Most Mayan cities were destroyed by the invading Toltec tribes, but in the 11th century. Mayan culture was revived again in the Yucatan Peninsula and in the mountains of Guatemala. Its main centers are the cities of Chichen Itza, Uxmal and Mayapan.
Still developing most successfully architecture. One of the remarkable architectural monuments of the postclassical period is the pyramid of Kukulcan - the “Feathered Serpent” in Chichen Itza. To the top of the nine-step pyramid, where the temple is located, there are four staircases bordered by a balustrade, which begins at the bottom with a beautifully executed snake head and continues in the form of a snake body to the upper floor. The pyramid symbolizes the calendar, for the 365 steps of its stairs correspond to the number of days in a year. It is also notable for the fact that inside it there is another nine-step pyramid, in which there is a sanctuary, and in it there is an amazing stone throne depicting a jaguar.
The “Temple of the Magician” pyramid in Uxmal is also very original. It differs from all others in that in horizontal projection it has an oval shape.
By the middle of the 15th century. Mayan culture enters into a severe crisis and declines. When the Spanish conquerors entered at the beginning of the 16th century. to Mayan cities, many of them were abandoned by their inhabitants. The reasons for such an unexpected and sad ending to a thriving culture and civilization remain a mystery.
Ancient civilizations of South America. Inca culture
In South America, almost simultaneously with the Olmec civilization of Mesoamerica, at the end of the 2nd millennium BC, an equally mysterious Chavin culture, similar to the Olmec, although not related to it.
At the turn of our era in the northern part of the coastal zone of Peru appears Mochica Civilization, and in the south - Nazca civilization. Somewhat later, in the mountains of northern Bolivia, an original Tiahuanaco culture. These civilizations of South America were in some respects inferior to the Mesoamerican cultures: they did not have hieroglyphic writing, an accurate calendar, etc. But in many other ways - especially in technology - they were superior to Mesoamerica. Already from the 2nd millennium BC. The Indians of Peru and Bolivia smelted metals, processed gold, silver, copper and their alloys and made from them not only beautiful jewelry, but also tools - shovels and hoes. They had developed agriculture, built magnificent temples, created monumental sculptures, and produced beautiful ceramics with polychrome painting. Their fine fabrics made of cotton and wool became widely known. In the 1st millennium AD the production of metal products, ceramics and textiles reached a large scale and a high level, and it was this that constituted the unique originality of the South American civilizations of the classical period.
The Postclassical period (X-XVI centuries AD) was marked by the emergence and disappearance of many states in both the mountainous and coastal zones of South America. In the XIV century. The Incas create the state of Tauatin-suyu in the mountainous zone, which, after a long war with neighboring small states, manages to emerge victorious and subjugate all the others.
In the 15th century it turns to the gigantic and famous Inca Empire with a huge territory and a population of about 6 million people. At the head of the huge power was a divine ruler, the son of the Sun Inca, who relied on a hereditary aristocracy and a caste of priests.
The basis economy was agriculture, the main crops of which were corn, potatoes, beans, and red peppers. The Inca state was distinguished by its efficient organization of public works, called "mita". Mita meant the obligation of all subjects of the empire to work one month a year on the construction of government facilities. It made it possible to gather tens of thousands of people in one place, thanks to which irrigation canals, fortresses, roads, bridges, etc. were built in a short time.
From north to south, the Inca Country is crossed by two paraplegic roads. one of which had a length of more than 5 thousand km. These highways were connected to each other by a large number of transverse roads, which created an excellent network of communications. Along the roads at certain distances there were postal stations and warehouses with food and necessary materials. There was a state post office in Gauatinsuyu.
Spiritual and religious life and matters of cult were the responsibility of the priests. The supreme deity was considered Viracocha - Creator of the world and other gods. Other deities were the golden sun god Inti. god of weather, thunder and lightning Ilpa. A special place was occupied by the ancient cults of the mother of the Earth, Mama Pacha, and the mother of the sea, Mama (Sochi). The worship of the gods took place in stone temples, decorated inside with gold.
Regulated all aspects of life, including the personal life of citizens of the empire. All Incas were required to marry before a certain age. If this did not happen, then the issue was resolved by a government official at his own discretion, and his decision was binding.
Although the Incas did not have real writing, this did not stop them from creating beautiful myths, legends, epic poems, religious hymns, and dramatic works. Unfortunately, little has survived from this spiritual wealth.
Highest flourishing culture the Incas reached at the beginning XVI V. However, this prosperity did not last long. In 1532, the most powerful empire of pre-Columbian America submitted to the Europeans almost without resistance. A small group of Spanish conquerors led by Francisco Pizarro managed to kill Inca Atahualpa, which paralyzed the will to resist his people, and the great Inca Empire ceased to exist.
A little over ten years ago - on October 12, 1992, planet Earth celebrated one of the most significant dates in the history of mankind - the 500th anniversary of the discovery of America. There are many hypotheses about when man appeared in the Western Hemisphere, in North and South America, on numerous islands, and when people came to the American continent. For the fifth century now (since the 16th century), pundits have been debating this issue. In numerous studies on this topic, among the first inhabitants of America are people from the Canary Islands, Phoenicians and Carthaginians, ancient Greeks and Romans, Jews, Spaniards, Egyptians and Babylonians, Chinese and even Tatars and Scythians.
Science developed, and as new discoveries were made, knowledge accumulated and hypotheses were selected. Today there is no longer any doubt that the part of the world marked on the world map as America was inhabited by people from other continents. However, from which ones exactly has not been finally decided. Nevertheless, scientists were able to identify many common features inherent in all Indians, bringing them closer to the Mongoloid peoples of Asia. The appearance of the original inhabitants of America at the time of their first meetings with Europeans was as follows: a stocky figure, short legs, medium-sized feet, rather long arms but with small hands, a high and usually wide forehead, poorly developed brow ridges. The Indian's face had a large, strongly protruding nose (often, especially in the north, the so-called eagle nose), and a rather large mouth. The eyes are most often dark brown. The hair is black, straight, thick.
Many early European documentary and literary sources indicated that the Indians were red-skins. This is actually not true. The skin of representatives of various Indian tribes is rather yellow-brown. According to modern researchers, the name “Redskins” was given to them by the first settlers. It did not arise by chance. The North American Indians once had a widespread custom of rubbing their faces and bodies with red ocher on special occasions. That's why Europeans called them redskins.
Currently, anthropologists distinguish three main groups of Indians - North American, South American and Central American, whose representatives differ in height, skin color and other characteristics.
Most researchers believe that the settlement of the American continent came from Asia through the Bering Strait. Scientists believe that four great glaciations helped ancient people overcome the expanse of water. According to this hypothesis, during the glaciations the Bering Strait froze and turned into some kind of huge bridge. Asian tribes who led a nomadic lifestyle freely moved along it to the neighboring continent. Based on this, the time of the appearance of man on the American continent was determined - this happened 10-30 thousand years ago.
At the time of the arrival of the Spanish caravels under the command of Christopher Columbus off the eastern coast of the New World (October 1492), North and South America, including the islands of the West Indies, were inhabited by many tribes and nationalities. With the light hand of the famous navigator, who assumed that he had discovered new lands of India, they began to be called Indians. These tribes were at different levels of development. According to most researchers, before the European conquest, the most advanced civilizations of the Western Hemisphere developed in Mesoamerica and the Andes. The term “Mesoamerica” was introduced in the 40s of the 20th century by the German scientist Paul Kirchoff. Since then, in archeology this has been used to designate a geographic region that includes Mexico and most of Central America (up to the Nicoya Peninsula in Costa Rica). It was this territory that, at the time of its discovery by Europeans, was inhabited by many Indian tribes and presented a colorful picture of the cultures that they represented. According to the correct definition of the Czech Americanist Miloslav Stingl, “these cultures were at different stages of development of tribal society, and the general laws of evolution characteristic of the primitive communal formation manifested themselves here in many local variants and forms.” Scientists include such cultures as the Olmec, Teotihuacan, Mayan, Toltec and Aztec among the most vibrant and developed civilizations of Ancient America (pre-Columbian period).
The study of the art of Ancient America and its history is relatively young. It dates back a little over a hundred years. American studies researchers currently do not have such rich material and achievements as are available today in the field of studying ancient art. They also experience great difficulties due to the fact that to support their conclusions obtained as a result of archaeological excavations and discoveries, they do not have as many written monuments as are, for example, at the disposal of researchers of the Ancient East. The ancient Americans developed writing much later and never reached a high level of development. The written monuments of the peoples of Mesoamerica that have reached us have not yet been sufficiently studied. Therefore, most information concerning political history, social system, mythology, conquests, titles and names of rulers is based only on Indian legends. Many of them were recorded after the Spanish conquest and date back to the first half of the 16th century. It is also important to remember that until this time, ancient American civilizations developed without any influence from European or Asian centers. Until the 16th century, their development proceeded completely independently.
The art of Ancient America, like any other art, has a number of features and characteristic features that are unique to it. In order to comprehend this uniqueness, a dialectical approach is necessary, taking into account the historical conditions under which the art and culture of the ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica developed.
Scientists attribute the highest flowering of the culture of the Mayan Indian tribe to the 7th-8th centuries. The Aztec Empire reached the apogee of its development at the beginning of the 16th century. Very often, in the works of archaeological scientists and researchers of ancient cultural civilizations, the Mayan Indian peoples (as older people) are called by analogy “Greeks,” and the Aztecs (as they existed later) are called “Romans” of the New World.
The Mayan cultural traditions had enormous influence in the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras and El Salvador, as well as in several states of modern Mexico. The geographical boundaries of the distribution of this civilization were 325,000 km2 and covered the habitat of several dozen, and possibly hundreds of tribes. In general, the tribes inherited a single culture. However, in many ways it naturally had regional characteristics.
The Mayan civilization stood out primarily for its achievements in construction and architecture. Representatives of this nationality created exquisite and perfect works of painting and sculpture, had unique masters in stone processing and the manufacture of ceramic products. The Mayans had deep knowledge of astronomy and mathematics. Their greatest achievement is their introduction of such a mathematical concept as “zero”. They began to use it hundreds of years earlier than other highly developed civilizations.
The Aztecs appeared in Central Mexico in the second half of the 12th century. No historical data about them has been found before this time. There are only a few legends and traditions from which it is known that they called the island of Aztlan (Aztlan) their homeland. One of the traditional descriptions of the supposed life of ancestors in Aztlan is known, allegedly compiled for the last of the pre-Hispanic rulers of the Aztec state, the famous Montezuma II the Younger, based on ancient manuscripts. According to this source, the ancestral home of Aztlan was located on an island (or was an island), where there was a large mountain with caves that served as dwellings. From this word, which denoted the location of the island (Aztlan), came the name of the tribe - Aztecs (more precisely, Aztecs). However, science has not yet established the exact geographical location of this island.
In the earliest stages of their existence, the Aztecs were dominated by a nomadic lifestyle; they were mainly engaged in hunting. This left an imprint on their character. By nature they were very warlike. For almost two centuries, the Az-Tecs waged wars of conquest and at the beginning of the 14th century, having conquered many other tribes living in Central Mexico, they created a powerful empire. Around 1325, the city they founded, Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City), became its capital.
Currently, interest in the study of ancient Indian civilizations has not faded. Architectural monuments, sculpture, jewelry, household items discovered in places where peoples with an original, unique culture lived several thousand years ago, still conceal a lot of unsolved things. Understanding the history of pre-Columbian America, leading archaeologists and modern scientists are trying to find an explanation for many of the most important aspects of the life of ancient human communities.
